I. HUMAN RIGHTS -- WHAT ARE HUMAN RIGHTS?
A.Civil and Political Rights
B.Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights
C.Solidarity
II. HISTORY -- WHY ARE HUMAN RIGHTS SO IMPORTANT?
A.Roots in Natural Law
B.Other Political Ideologies Added Emphasis
C.Pre-World War II
D.World War II
III. LAWS -- HOW ARE HUMAN RIGHTS UNIVERSALLY DEFINED?
A.1945 - Charter of the United Nations
B.1948 - Universal Declaration of Human Rights
C.1966 - International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights
D.1966 - International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
E.Numerous Additional Treaties
F.Moral Code of Conduct
IV. IMPLEMENTATION -- HOW ARE HUMAN RIGHTS ENFORCED?
A.Charter
B.Treaty Based
C.Personal Moral Code of Conduct
Now, therefore, THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY proclaims this Universal
Declaration of Human Rights as a common standard of achievement for
all peoples and all nations, to the end that every individual and
every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind,
shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these
rights and freedoms:
Article 1 Right to Equality
Article 2 Freedom from Discrimination
Article 3 Right to Life, Liberty, Personal Security
Article 4 Freedom from Slavery
Article 5 Freedom from Torture, Degrading Treatment
Article 6 Right to Recognition as a Person before the Law
Article 7 Right to Equality before the Law
Article 8 Right to Remedy by Competent Tribunal
Article 9 Freedom from Arbitrary Arrest, Exile
Article 10 Right to Fair Public Hearing
Article 11 Right to be considered innocent until proven Guilty
Article 12 Freedom from Interference with Privacy, Family, Home and
Correspondence
Article 13 Right to Free Movement in and out of the Country
Article 14 Right to Asylum in other Countries from Persecution
Article 15 Right to a Nationality and Freedom to Change It
Article 16 Right to Marriage and Family
Article 17 Right to own Property
Article 18 Freedom of Belief and Religion
Article 19 Freedom of Opinion and Information
Article 20 Right of Peaceful Assembly and Association
Article 21 Right to Participate in Government and in Free
Elections
Article 22 Right to Social Security
Article 23 Right to Desirable Work and to join Trade Unions
Article 24 Right to Rest and Leisure
Article 25 Right to Adequate Living Standard
Article 26 Right to Education
Article 27 Right to Participate in the Cultural Life of Community
Article 28 Right to Social Order assuring Human Rights
Article 20 Community Duties essential to Free and Full
Development
Article 30 Freedom from State or Personal Interference in the above
Rights
Reprinted by permission of Human Rights for All c 1991 Lawyers for
Human Rights (S. Africa) and National Institute for Citizen Education
in the Law (USA). All rights reserved.
Convention on the Rights of the Child United Nations Human Rights
Bodies --- Flow Chart
The Code of Hammurabi -
c. 1750 B.CE.
Hammurabi was a ruler of Babylonia--one
of several rival Mesopotamian kingdoms--whose reign marked a golden
age of Semitic culture. Hammurabi eventually conquered the other
Mesopotamian kingdoms, and issued a law code "to establish justice
throughout Mesopotamia."
Clay tablet records show that
Hammurabi was a scrupulous, able administrator. His code--one of the
earliest legal documents--influenced Near Eastern civilization for
centuries. It consolidated earlier regulations (of the formal rival
kingdoms Akkad and Sumer) on practical aspects of trade, labor,
property, family, slavery, trade, and the "eye for an eye, tooth for
a tooth" punishment. The Code of Hammurabi survives in a stone column
discovered in Iran in 1901 (now in Paris), and in clay tablet
versions, probably originally posted to inform literate citizens of
their rights.
Old Testament - c. 1200 - c. 300 B.C.E.
Unlike most ancient peoples, who
worshiped many gods, ancient Israelites worshiped one universal God.
They saw history as an interaction between God and humanity, whose
course depended on obedience to God's laws. The Hebrew Scriptures--39
books by many authors--recorded the law the Israelites believed their
God gave them. Christians and Muslims also founded their ethics on
the Hebrew Scriptures. Christians know it as the Old Testament.
Muslims regard the first five books, the Torah, as divine scripture.
The Torah contains laws God is said
to have given to the Hebrew prophets, beginning with the mosaic
laws--the Ten Commandments--given to Moses on Mount Sinai. The mosaic
laws commanded respect for life and the property of strangers as well
as neighbors by establishing rights in terms of duties (the right to
life, for example, was expressed in the commandment not to kill). The
asylum tradition in churches and synagogues and the principle that
one is innocent until proven guilty also originate in Jewish law.
Confucius - c. 551 - c. 479
B.C.E.
Living in politically and socially
turbulent times, Confucius was a philosopher who taught government
and social reform. His philosophical teachings revolved around "jen"
or benevolence, which he expressed in twin sayings: "Do not do to
others what you would not like yourself" and "Do unto others what you
wish to do unto yourself". He believed that people should practice
jen towards those below them in a social or spiritual hierarchy and
that government should practice jen rather than use force. His own
employment in government was troubled by disagreements with his
superiors.
Confucius' teachings, collected in
his Analects and spread by 3000 disciples, became a code of conduct
and the basis of a traditional way of life that made him the most
influential philosopher in Chinese history. Confucian teachings
emphasizing the individual's responsibilities to the community remain
influential to this day in China and other Asian countries.
New Testament - c. 40 - 100 C.E.
Jesus' followers, scattered around the
Roman Empire, wrote letters and accounts of his life, which were
circulated among early Christian churches. These became the New
Testament, in which Jesus is reported to have quoted the Old
Testament: "The Spirit of the Lord is in me...to preach good news to
the poor. He has sent me to proclaim freedom for the prisoners and
recovery of sight to the blind, to release the oppressed, to [invite
all to God's kingdom]." He then claimed he fulfilled those words.
The New Testament says Jesus angered
religious leaders by denouncing hypocrisy, healing the sick, and
treating women, foreigners, and the poor with dignity. The Apostle
Paul, who wrote some New Testament books in prison, said that among
Jesus' followers, "there is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free,
male nor female." The New Testament also says that Jesus taught that
rights come together with responsibilities. He urged his followers to
feed the hungry, clothe the naked, and forgive their enemies.
Magna Carta - 1215
English nobles and clergy rallied
against King John I's abuse of power--heavy taxation to finance
expensive, unsuccessful wars, and his refusal to accept papal
authority, which effectively kept churches closed for years. They
subjected the King to the rule of law by enacting from him a "great
charter" of liberties.
Though King John I soon violated it,
the Magna Carta eventually came to be cited widely, in defense of
many liberties. The U.S. national and state constitutions contain
ideas and even phrases directly traceable to it--for example, the
concept of no taxation without representation. Clause 39, which
stated that "no free man shall be arrested or imprisoned...[or
dispossessed] except by...lawful judgement," became known as the
right of habeas corpus, or due process of law.
Treaty of Westphalia - 1648
For centuries after Augustine, the
Roman Catholic Church was the unique Christian authority in Europe.
However, the church became plagued by depravity and an inability to
satisfy its followers' spiritual needs, and in the 1500's, a reform
movement spread. This reformation and a Catholic Counter-Reformation,
along with sovereignty disputes, racked most of Europe for a century.
These wars were finally ended by the
Treaty of Westphalia (named for the region of Germany where it was
signed). The Treaty led to the modern notion of national sovereignty
by freeing state rulers from Catholic church jurisdiction. It allowed
rulers to choose their subjects' religion, but put an end to the
Reformation and the Counter-Reformation by specifying that rulers
would forfeit their lands if they changed religions. The Treaty also
took a step toward religious toleration by allowing Catholic or
Protestant minorities in some states rights to private worship,
liberty of conscience, and emigration.
English Bill of Rights - 1689
James II, like several kings before
him, thought the law inconvenient and often dispensed with it. For
this his subjects overthrew him in 1688, and when Mary II and William
III took the throne in 1689, Parliament passed a bill declaring that
it would no longer tolerate royal interference in its affairs. The
bill became part of the foundation of the English constitution, and
in the following century, most English took pride in the freedom its
provisions gave them from arbitrary government.
The bill forbade royalty to suspend
law without Parliament's consent, specified free elections for
members of Parliament, and declared that freedom of speech in
Parliament was not to be questioned, in the courts or elsewhere. The
bill also prohibited taxation or maintenance of an army in peacetime
without Parliament's consent, excessive bail or fines, and cruel and
unusual punishment.
United States Declaration of Independence -
1776
Calling themselves the Continental
Congress, representatives of Britain's 13 colonies first convened in
1774 to protest British policies. When they convened again after the
American Revolution had begun, they voted for independence from
Britain and adopted the Declaration of Independence, becoming the
first government of the 13 United States. The Declaration had far-
reaching and lasting influence on individual rights in Western
civilization, inspiring rebellion against Spanish rule in South
America and against monarchy in France.
Because of his literary skill,
Thomas Jefferson was chosen to write the Declaration. Based largely
on Locke's and Montesquieu's "natural rights" theories, it listed the
colonists' grievances against King George, accusing him of systematic
tyranny; announced the colonies' separation from Great Britain;
proclaimed the creation of the United States; and justified the
revolution. The Congress rejected two passages, in which Jefferson
searingly denounced the slave trade and defamed the English
people.
United States Constitution and the Bill of Rights - 1787,
1791
Faced with teetering economies and
armed revolt, 12 of the new states sent delegates to rethink the 1781
constitution. At the convention, the delegates (in their 20's or
30's, but led by veterans James Madison and George Washington)
centralized and strengthened the government while aiming to limit its
power enough to guarantee individual liberty.
The 1781 constitution replaced the
almost powerless Continental Congress with three branches of
government and provided for checks and balances among them.
Twenty-six amendments to the Constitution have established specific
rights (the Bill of Rights, contributed by antifederalists including
Jefferson, contains the first 10). Adaptable, as one justice
remarked, "to various crises of human affairs" through judicial
reinterpretation, the Constitution is now the oldest in operation and
one of the most influential documents in Western history.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen -
1789
Since the 1730's, economic decline and
the ideas of the Enlightenment had been spreading in France
simultaneously, and the success of the American Revolution had
infused French reformers with hope. The Estates General
(representatives of the clergy, nobility, and the commoners) wrote
the Declaration to exemplify the thoughts of Enlightenment figures
such as Voltaire, Montesquieu, the Encyclopedists, and Rousseau.
Though the reform efforts failed and
France tumbled into revolution, the Declaration legacy eventually
prevailed. It attacked the political and legal systems of the
monarchy and defined the natural rights of men as "liberty, property,
security, and the right to resist oppression." The Declaration
replaced the system of aristocratic privileges that had existed under
the monarchy with the principle of equality before the law.
Emancipation Proclamation - 1863
The Civil War started in 1861 as a
Northern struggle to keep the United States from breaking apart.
Abolitionists were a minority; Abraham Lincoln did not champion
slaves' moral claims to freedom and could never have been elected
president on a platform of abolishing slavery. But once the Southern
states seceded, the political purpose of accommodating slavery
disappeared, and as deaths mounted and volunteering declined,
pressure grew to enlist blacks. Just two years later, when Lincoln
issued the Emancipation Proclamation, the North had transformed the
war into a crusade to free Southern slaves.
Because it applied only to
territories in Confederate possession--taking effect only as Northern
lines advanced--the Proclamation at first freed no slaves at all. Its
importance lay in opening the door to black army enlistment--which
shocked many and aided the North's victory--and to passage of the
thirteenth amendment, which outlawed slavery nationwide in 1865.
Geneva Conventions - 1864, 1949
Brought into being by the newly created
International Red Cross, the Geneva Convention of 1864 was the first
international law treaty governing the conduct of nations in wartime,
and so marks the origin of modern humanitarian and human rights law.
The Convention created provisions for the treatment of sick and
wounded soldiers.
The Convention was revised and
amended several times, and the current version, approved in 1949
after World War II, comprises four separate conventions. The first
and second deal with the care of the sick and wounded in land and
maritime warfare; the third deals with the treatment of prisoners of
war; and the fourth deals with the protection of civilians and
noncombatants. Together, the four Geneva Conventions aim to ensure
that human dignity is respected even during hostilities. Their
provisions continue to be monitored and enforced by the International
Committee of the Red Cross.
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi - 1869 - 1948
Gandhi began his career in South
Africa, where he practiced law and agitated against racism directed
at Indians. There he developed his tactics of non-violent
confrontation based on the principle of respect for life; he called
his strategy "satyagraha" (truth force). Later, in India, after a
massacre by the British, Gandhi led a series of satyagraha campaigns
until India achieved independence in 1947. Gandhi's campaigns
alternated with imprisonment. His "constructive program" consisted of
movements against class discrimination and for Muslim-Hindu unity,
women's rights, and basic education.
Later called Mahatma (great soul),
Gandhi was assassinated by a religious fanatic. His influence has
been felt around the world--notably in South Africa and the United
States, where major civil rights movements based on his ideas were
later carried out.
The United Nations Charter - 1945
The U.N. Charter was signed by 51
nations in the postwar climate of 1945. It established an
international organization dedicated to maintaining peace and
security and to cooperation in solving economic, social, cultural,
and humanitarian problems. Although it affirmed "faith in fundamental
human rights," its signatories disagreed on the nature of these human
rights. The first U.N. conference therefore rejected a proposal to
include protection of human rights as an article of the Charter.
The Charter gives the U.N. General
Assembly and its Commission on Human Rights primary responsibility
for promoting human rights. The Commission was instrumental in
creating declarations and covenants on human rights, including civil,
political, economic, social, and cultural rights. Although not
legally enforceable, these documents are used to interpret the human
rights provisions of the U.N. Charter.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights -
1948
Because representatives at the U.N.
conference in 1945 wrestled with reconciling their various
conceptions of human rights, the clauses relating to human rights
that were finally included in the U.N. Charter were very ambiguous.
The U.N. assigned a Commission, with Eleanor Roosevelt as
chairperson, to clarify the Charter's references to human rights. The
result was a statement of universal goals concerning human rights and
freedoms, which was adopted by the U.N. General Assembly in 1948. The
Declaration is not legally binding, but its content has been
incorporated into many national constitutions, and it has become a
standard measure of human rights.
Debates over the priority of
individuals' political and civil rights versus social and economic
rights made drafting the Declaration a long and arduous process.
Socialist nations supported primacy of the latter. Many of the
eastern-bloc countries abstained from voting; Saudi Arabia objected
to religious freedom; and South Africa objected to racial
equality.
*The above definitions are taken from the Amnesty International
Interactive CD ROM.
Affirmative Action
Action taken by government or private businesses to make up for past
discrimination in education, work, and promotion against women and
those of specific races, ethnic groups, religions, or
disabilities.
Arbitration A process
by which, instead of going to court, disputing parties ask a third
person to listen to their arguments and then to make a decision which
they agree to follow.
Bill of rights A
statement in a constitution of human or civil rights that lists
protections against interference by governments.
Civil rights The
rights of citizens to liberty and equality (for example, the freedom
to access information or the freedom to vote).
Collective rights The
rights of groups to protect their interests and identities.
Constitution A set of
laws by which a country or organization is governed.
Covenant A formal
legal agreement such as the International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights or the International Covenant on Economic, Social,
and Cultural Rights.
Conventions International agreements dealing with
specific subjects.
Cultural Rights The right to preserve one's cultural
identity and development.
Death penalty The sanctioned taking of life by the
state as a punishment for a crime.
Declaration A formal statement or announcement of
intent.
Democracy Government by all people in the
country--directly or by representation.
Developmental rights The right of groups to grow in
cultural, political, and economic ways.
Disappearance The expression used when people vanish because
they have been killed or secretly imprisoned by the government or
other organizations.
Discrimination Distinguishing between people on the
basis of their race, culture, ethnic origin, nationality, sexual
orientation, religion, physical handicap, or characteristics other
than individual merit.
Economic Factors concerning the production,
development, or management of material wealth.
Economic rights Rights that concern the production,
development, and management of materials for the necessities of
life.
Environmental rights The right of a person to live
in conditions that are healthy and safe.
Freedom of expression The freedom to express views
in print and other media, and to receive as well as communicate
ideas.
Genocide The systematic killing of people based on
race or ethnicity.
Human rights Rights that universally belong to
people regardless of their sex, race, color, language, national
origin, age, class, religion, or political beliefs.
Indigenous peoples People who are original or
natural inhabitants of a country.
Legal rights Rights that are laid down in law and
can be defended and brought before courts of law.
Limited government The restriction of government
power, usually done through a constitution.
Mediation A process whereby a third person helps
disputing parties to settle their disagreement by discussing the
issue until both are satisfied with the solution.
Moral rights Rights based on general principles of
fairness and justice.
Nationalize The take over and operation of private
industries or institutions by the government.
Natural rights Rights that belong to people simply
because they are human beings.
Negotiation The process by which people in a dispute
talk to each other in order to arrive at a solution to their
problem.
Ombudsman An independent, unbiased person who
investigates complaints.
Participation Taking part in the public life of a
community or society.
Political rights The right of people to participate
in the political life of their community and society such as by
voting for their government.
Rule of law No person, whether a governmental
official, a king, or a president, is above the law. Those who govern
and those who are governed are bound by the same law.
Separation of powers The separation of powers into
three separate branches of government: A legislative branch to make
laws; an executive branch to carry out the laws; and an independent
judicial branch to punish law breakers and settle disputes.
Social People living together in communities.
Social rights Rights that give people security as
they live together and learn together, as in families, schools, and
other institutions.
State sovereignty The state government has the
ultimate legal right to determine what is done within its
jurisdiction.
Definitions taken from Human Rights for All written by Edward
L. O' Brien, Eleanor Greene, and David McQuoid-Mason. Published by
the National Institute for Citizen Education in the Law, 1996.
1. Establishing and valuing the knowledge and opinions which
students already have--about fairness, laws, freedom, other
countries, and authority.
2. Getting students to trust and respect others--to feel confidence
that by expressing opinions they will not feel foolish.
3. Giving students a sense of initial self-confidence through the
successful completion of simple tasks--listing questions about rights
which a series of photos raise, making a poster illustrating part of
the Universal Declaration.
4. Adopting a problem-centered and action-oriented approach to the
subject by focusing on "problems to be solved" rather than "problems
which overwhelm us".
5. Giving students a measure of responsibility for designing and
managing the rest of the course.
1. The approach is global in the sense of having
a planetary perspective, but also concerning the whole curriculum and
indeed the whole school.
2. The climate of the school encourages expression,
inquiry, and dialogue, enabling time to be used flexibly for special
projects.
3. Participation is encouraged both by formal
structures within the school and through pedagogy of active
learning.
4. Human rights is a dimension and cross-curricular
theme . Ideally, interdisciplinary teams of teachers will be
involved.
5. Although human rights concepts are found in every area of the
school curriculum, it is useful to give the idea a high public
profile within the school through a special
project.
6. Special projects are an appropriate opportunity for working with
the community.
7. Human rights education projects are motivating to
students and teachers: they encourage a sense of citizenship.
8. Human rights is about law. Respect for process
and for the law will increase if students are involved in the
formulation of the rules and codes of conduct in their schools and
classes.
1. To know about basic rights and fundamental freedoms is part of
the birthright, and should be part of the entitlement curriculum of
all young people. For students in the Council of Europe's Member
States, where human rights are not just claims and assertions but
part of the legal framework, human rights are part of the students'
law related education.
2. Human rights cases and issues are human and can
interest and encourage the humanity of students.
3. Human rights offer a value framework suitable for modern society
which, typically, is multi-cultural and multi-faith, and part of an
interdependent world. Human Rights are, thus, an essential element in
education for modern citizenship.
4. Human rights offer to young people something positive to believe
in and support.
5. No man or woman is an island. We are all our brother's and
sister's keepers and helpers.
6. Young people have rights and responsibilities, and developing an
awareness of them is a proper part of education in citizenship.
7. Important organizations -- such as the United Nations, the Council
of Europe, and some national human rights commissions -- support the
teaching of human rights in the schools.
8. The facilitation of non-violent change is the most urgent task
today -- both within societies and between societies.
9. Teaching and learning about human rights can contribute to a
political education which is over and above party politics.
10. Teaching about human rights affords students opportunities of
active learning, working on non-partisan projects--such as when they
work for Amnesty International and conduct campaigns on behalf of
political prisoners or raise funds for famine relief.
Lister, I. (1991). The Challenge of Human Rights Education in H.
Starkey ed., The Challenge of Human Rights Education, Council of
Europe, London.
1. Human rights are too complex for immature minds (an argument
also made about other activates -- such as political education and
economics).
2. Human rights over-stress rights and under-stress
responsibilities.
3. To teach human rights is a form of indoctrination, in which the
teacher becomes a preacher (albeit of a secular religion).
4. Human rights teachers are usually more interested in social change
(or in subversion) than in maintaining the fabric of society.
5. Human rights is a culture-bound conception, born in Western Europe
and North America, foisted on the world in 1948.
6. There is no consensus about what it is "to have a right", and no
consensus about human rights in general. Schools should teach only
those things about which consensus exists.
7. Human are too individualistic and private. Group rights,
collective rights and the importance of public domain are
under-represented.
8. If we arrogate to ourselves the right to pass judgement upon, and
seek to interfere with, the internal administration of justice in
other countries, we are in effect according the same right of
judgement and interference in our own. There is no good so great that
it is worth purchasing it at the price of national independence
(Extract from a letter by a politician to a schoolteacher who had
invited the politician to make a statement in support of a human
rights exhibition mounted by students in a comprehensive school).
9. Human rights issues are complex, long-term, and often intractable.
Teaching about them can give students a feeling of impotence, rather
than enable them to act upon issues and affect their outcomes.
10. Teachers of human go too far. They are not satisfied with
teaching about human rights. They want to teach for human rights.
They want "human rights schools" and "human rights classrooms". They
assert women's rights, children's rights, and animal rights. Some
even talk of the "rights of trees". Ordinary citizens will not
support this.
Listner, I. (1991). The Challenge of Human Rights Education in H.
Starkey ed., The Challenge of Human Rights Education, Council of
Europe, London.
DEVELOPMENTAL/CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
DEVELOPMENTAL
LEVEL
CORE CONCEPTS
& VALUES
HUMAN RIGHTS
STANDARDS &
INSTRUMENTS
ISSUES &
PROBLEMS
EARLY CHILDHOOD
GRADES K-3
rules
order
respect
fairness
diversity
equality
personal responsibility
classroom rules
Declaration of the Rights
of the Child
inequlity
unfairness
harm
MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
GRADES 4-6
citizenship
community
freedom
charter
constitution
law
declaration
social responsibility
community standards
Declaration of
Independence
African Freedom Charter
U.S. Bill of Rights
Universal Declaration of
Human Rights
Convention on the Rights
of the Child
prejudice
discrimination
poverty
injustice
EARLY ADOLESCENCE
GRADES 7-9
justice
equality
equity
conventions
covenants
global responsibility
Regional Human Rights
Conventions
U.N. Covenants &
Conventions: Elimination
of Racism; Discrimination
against Women; Civil,
Political Rights; &
Economic, Social, &
Cultural Rights
ethnocentrism
racism
sexism
authoritarianism
colonialism
humger
ADOLESCENCE
GRADES 10-12
moral exclusion
moral responsibility
world citizenship
ecological responsibility
Nuremberg Principles
U.N. Conventions on:
Prevention & Punishment
of Genocide; Prevention &
Elimination of Torture
Defining & developing
new standards
ethnocide
genocide
torture
political repression
environmental abuse
* Betty Reardon is a teacher at Columbia University's Teacher
College.
1. Present any factual information in an inviting way. Try to avoid
lecture unless it is absolutely necessary. Keep it simple and
short.
2. Know your subject area. Students will have very specific questions
especially about areas of great interest such as the laws of search
and seizure.
3. Use participatory activities such as case studies, mock trials,
moot courts, role plays, and simulations. Students will not become
bored, and therefore potential disciplinary problems, and they will
learn much more than if they simply sit and listen.
4. Know your audience. Avoid legal terms unless you define them. Ask
the age of the group, how many, extent of knowledge of the subject
area so that you can adjust your lesson.
5. The teacher should remain in the classroom to deal with
administrative issues and discipline problems.
6. Prepare an agenda for yourself, the more detailed the better.
Break it down into minutes if possible. However, be prepared to vary
from it and remember that in most cases your are limited to a
specific amount of time and will not be able to go beyond that time.
Never "wing it."
7. Don't underestimate the knowledge of your audience. Everyone
watches law programs on T.V. Be prepared to address some common
misconceptions. Anticipate questions.
8. Try to "uncover," "discover," instead of "cover."
9. Encourage students to ask questions when they think of them.
Asking students to wait until the end of your comments results in
their confusion and "dropping out."
10. Be realistic. Present situations as they really happen. Students
will know when you are explaining the ideal or "the way it is
supposed to happen."
11. Avoid placing yourself in the middle of a controversy. If the
information you are going to present will flag questionable behavior
by school administrators, prepare for that by first talking to the
teacher or administrator if possible.
12. Understand your power as an outside resource person. You are an
expert and you are a new face in the classroom. The students will
probably listen carefully and repeat much of what you say. They might
also adopt your attitudes.
13. Present balanced information. This is especially important when
teaching current events as they have unfolded in the media.
14. Be enthusiastic and have fun! Move around the room. Vary your
voice. Your enthusiasm will be contagious.
Prejudice, discrimination and other hateful behavior must be
considered when discussing human rights. While all human rights
violations are not a result of prejudice and discrimination, often
they play an integral part in the dynamic. When working with students
in the classroom it is very important to consider their experiences
and life realities and how this affects class expectations and their
attitudes and feelings regarding these issues. It is very important
to address the fact that human rights principles and issues are not
only applicable in the international setting, that human rights
education is also relevant "in our own backyards." It is important
that education in human rights can be validating and empowering to
students who feel oppressed in some way in our society and also it is
important to be sensitive to the fact that this same awareness may
possibly be quite frustrating. In working with classrooms it is
important to consider:
_ All of us harbor some prejudice against others, of which we are
often unaware.
_ By recalling times when we were targets of various forms of
prejudice and discrimination, and listening to the experiences of
others, we develop the empathy and commitment that will allow us to
work against expressions of prejudice in ourselves and others.
_ Given that learning is a lifelong process, and that prejudice is
learned, we believe that it can be unlearned.
_ Learning participants can recognize their biases only in an
environment that is non- judgemental and non-threatening.
_ Effective techniques for encouraging change are: role play,
experiential activities, and interactive discussions without harmful
confrontation.
_ Only by empowering and developing the commitment in participants
can we significantly diminish hateful behavior and world views in
youth and adults, by bringing people together as allies in this
struggle.
_ A multicultural educational environment (addressing experiences and
perspectives from individuals with diverse backgrounds) is a key
factor in reducing prejudice.
From A World of Difference Institute in Minnesota.
Generally speaking, it is important to reflect on our own biases, be
sensitive to the experiences and outlook of students and recognize
the need of human rights education in addressing our own society's
problems as well as the global view. Aiding in this task is the
social action componenet built into Partners in Human Rights
Education.
LECTURES: Long lectures are the least effective
approach to helping students understand the law. Short lectures may
be useful to provide background or summarize a discussion, but
proceed carefully when considering lecturing, and combine it with
more "hands-on" methods.
THE CASE METHOD: Although the case method and Socratic
questioning are not widely used in secondary schools, they have
become very popular in capturing the interests of teenagers. The case
method is also effective in helping students understand that many
legal conflicts are not simple matters of right against wrong, but of
legitimate rights in conflict. Thoughtful questioning can help
students identify the reasons, values and legal principles that
support their views and can give them a better understanding of the
views of others with whom they disagree. While many law school
teachers leave issues unresolved, closure and clarification are
important for students. Also, be careful not to intimidate students
and discourage their participation by intense questioning.
ROLE-PLAYING, MOCK TRIALS AND APPEALS: In these activities
students assume the role of another person and act it out.
Role-playing helps students understand the issues and views of others
and can add a more realistic, experiential dimension to law studies.
Role-playing can vary from informal in-class assignments to formal
moot court and mock trial presentations.
COOPERATIVE LEARNING: Cooperation is working together to
accomplish shared goals and cooperative learning is the instructional
use of small groups so that students work together to maximize their
own and each other's learning. Within cooperative learning groups
students are given two responsibilities: to learn the assigned
material and make sure that all other members of their group do
likewise. Students discuss the material to be learned with each
other, help and assist each other to understand it, and encourage
each other to work hard. Learning situations are structured so that
students cooperate with each other to learn the material.
Role-playing, research, mock trials and social action activities are
very appropriate methods in which to use the cooperative learning
model of classroom participation and learning.
SOCIAL ACTION ACTIVITIES: This is a very important component
to the partners in human rights education project. The incorporation
of issues in the community, school and lives of students in the
application of human rights principles empowers the students to
become informed community participants who act upon their
understanding of human rights and the responsibilities that accompany
them. It is important to ask the question: What can we/I do about
this situation? What will we/I do? and plan and carry out that
activity.
Purpose
1. To practice observing and interpreting behavioral differences.
2. To practice behaving from different cultural perspectives.
3. To translate knowledge about another group into action.
4. To demonstrate knowledge and skills appropriate to a situation.
[Note: Role-playing should be based on knowledge, and not mere guesswork]
Format
1. Spontaneous
Role-plays may arise out of discussions of a critical incident.
Teachers and students
illustrate and practice different solutions to the incident, then
discuss and compare alternatives.
1. Structured
a. Brief 'Scenario' or general statement describing the scene for actors and observers.
b. Short written instructions for the actor in each role, describing their point of view toward the encounter. These should be sketchy enough to allow freedom in interpretation.There should be some conflict between goals or means between/among participants.
Procedure
1. Distribute the scenario to all in the group.
2. Select members to play each role; give additional instructions about roles only to these individuals (Each participant sees the instructions only for his/her role).
3. Ask the remaining members to make observations on:a. The nature of the problem depicted.
b. The source of conflict between\among characters (beliefs, assumptions, values).
c. Differences in behaviors (verbal and non-verbal).
d. Feelings expressed during the encounter.4. Discuss observations and alternative approaches.
Has the conflict been resolved satisfactorily? Why or why not?
Sample Role-Play
A girl of twelve (R1) has been absent from school very
frequently, and is doing unsatisfactory work as a result. The girl's
mother (R2) has been summoned to school by the teacher (R3) for a
conference. The three of them are meeting together in the classroom
after school.
Instructions for participants
R1: You know that you should come to school every day, but
your mother needs your help at home. You are very respectful of both
teacher and mother, and want to please both.
R2: You are uncomfortable about coming to school, concerned about
leaving your younger children unattended, and anxious to get home,
and (unconsciously) feel it is good for her to learn how to do
housework and take care of babies. It will not be long until you
expect her to quit school entirely, although you hope your sons will
finish high school.
R3: You are a conscientious teacher, very concerned with students'
welfare, and convinced that getting a good education is the only way
this girl will be able to have a better life than her mother.
Furthermore, there is a state law which mandates school attendance
until at least age sixteen.
1. Make sure the students have the knowledge and skills necessary to
do the work (If they don't, you'll know in a hurry; they won't stick
to the task).
2. Make the instructions to the group very clear .
It is unlikely that the group will be able to follow more than one or
two instructions (even clear ones!).
3. Allow enough time to complete the assigned task in the small
group. Think creatively about ways to occupy groups that finish ahead
of other groups.
4. Form groups of two to five students. Have only two or three when a
complicated written product is the intended outcome. Five is probably
the upper limit for small group discussion.
5. In striking a balance between independent and cooperative
learning, don't force the issue. Use small groups only for tasks
calling for cooperative work (i.e., not independent work around a
small table).
6. Make small group work a norm in your classroom, not a radical,
once-in-a-lifetime departure from "lecture and recite."
7. Think about how your reward/evaluation strategy impacts upon the
use of small groups. Be able to provide group rewards for group
efforts.
8. Be explicit in dealing with management issues within the groups.
If someone must report back to the class on the group's work, be sure
there is a process for selecting the reporter.
9. Be prepared for the noise level which occurs during cooperative
learning activities.
10. In forming groups, don't catagorize students. Heterogeneous
groups are usually desirable.
11. By all means circulate and observe/evaluate what is occurring in
the groups. When you stop to visit a group, don't take it over. Think
about your role in such a situation.