University of Minnesota




Caesar V. Trinidad and Tobago, Judgment of March 11, 2005, Inter-Am Ct. H.R., (Ser. C) No. 123 (2005).


 

 

INTER-AMERICAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS CASE OF CAESAR V. TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO
JUDGMENT OF MARCH 11, 2005
In the Case of Caesar,
the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (hereinafter "the Court", "the Inter- American Court", or "the Tribunal"), composed of the following judges:
Sergio García-Ramírez, President;
Alirio Abreu-Burelli, Vice-President;
Oliver Jackman, Judge;
Antônio A. Cançado-Trindade, Judge;
Cecilia Medina-Quiroga, Judge;
Manuel E. Ventura-Robles, Judge; and
Diego García-Sayán, Judge;
Also present,
Pablo Saavedra-Alessandri, Secretary; and
Emilia Segares-Rodríguez, Deputy Secretary;
Pursuant to Articles 29, 31, 56, and 58 of the Rules of Procedure of the Court (hereinafter "the Rules of Procedure" or "the Rules"),1 delivers the present
Judgment.

I INTRODUCTION OF THE CASE

1. The present Case was submitted to the Court by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (hereinafter "the Commission" or "the Inter-American
Commission") against the State of Trinidad and Tobago (hereinafter "the State" or "Trinidad and Tobago") on February 26, 2003, originating from the petition No.
12.147, which was received at the Commission's Secretariat on May 13, 1999.

2. The Commission filed the Application pursuant to Article 61 of the American Convention, for the Court to decide whether the State violated “Mr. [Winston]
Caesar’s right to humane treatment under Articles 5(1) and 5(2) of the Convention, his right to be tried within a reasonable time under Article 8(1) of the Convention, and his right to judicial protection under Article 25 of the Convention, all in conjunction with violations of Article 1(1) of the Convention. In addition, the Commission argue[d] that the State, by failing to provide for the right to be tried within a reasonable time under its domestic law and by authorizing a form of
punishment that is incompatible with the right to humane treatment, is responsible for violating its obligation[…] under Article 2 of the Convention to give domestic legal effect[…] to the rights guaranteed under Articles 5(1), 5(2), 7(5) and 8(1) of the Convention”. The Commission also requested that the Court order the State to adopt various pecuniary and non-pecuniary measures of reparation.

3. According to the Application of the Commission, the current legislation of Trinidad and Tobago allows for the imposition of corporal punishment. Under the
Corporal Punishment Act (Offenders Over Sixteen) of 1953 (hereinafter “Corporal Punishment Act”), a court may order any male offender above the age of sixteen years to be struck, or flogged, with an object called a “cat-o-nine tails”, in addition to any other punishment to which he is liable, when convicted of certain crimes2. That same law provides that a sentence of flogging shall be carried out as soon as may be practicable and in no case after the expiration of six months from the passing of the decision. The alleged victim in this case, Mr. Winston Caesar (hereinafter "Mr. Caesar" or "the alleged victim"), was convicted before the High Court of Trinidad and Tobago of the offense of attempted rape and was sentenced to serve 20 years in a penitentiary with hard labour and to receive 15 strokes of the “cat-o-nine tails”. The Court of Appeal of Trinidad and Tobago confirmed his conviction and sentence and, 23 months after the final confirmation of his sentence, Mr. Caesar´s punishment of flogging was carried out.

4. Moreover, the Commission contends that, given the nature of the violations for which the State should be held responsible, Trinidad and Tobago must provide
Mr. Caesar with an effective remedy, which includes compensation for the moral damage suffered by him. In addition, the Commission seeks an order requiring the State to adopt legislative and other measures as necessary to give effect to the right to a trial within a reasonable time, to abrogate the punishment of flogging as
provided under its Corporal Punishment Act, and to ensure that conditions of detention in the State’s prisons satisfy the minimum standards of humane treatment provided for under the Convention.

II JURISDICTION OF THE COURT

5. Trinidad and Tobago deposited its instrument of ratification of the American Convention on Human Rights (hereinafter "the Convention" or "the American Convention") on May 28, 1991. On that same day, the State recognised the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court.

6. On May 26, 1998, Trinidad and Tobago denounced the Convention and the denunciation became effective one year later, as of May 26, 1999, pursuant to Article 78 of the Convention. According to Article 78 of the Convention, a denunciation will not release the denouncing State from its obligations under the
Convention with respect to acts of that State occurring prior to the effective date of the denunciation that may constitute a violation of the Convention.

7. Moreover, in the Hilaire, Constantine, Benjamin and others Case3, the Court held in its judgments on preliminary objections that:

[…] Trinidad and Tobago cannot prevail in the limitation included in its instrument of acceptance of the optional clause of the mandatory jurisdiction of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights in virtue of what has been established in Article 62 of the American Convention, because this limitation is incompatible with the object and purpose of the Convention.

8. Notwithstanding the fact that the Inter-American Court is fully competent to hear the present Case, the State did not participate in the proceedings before this
Tribunal (infra paras. 24, 30, 34 and 39). Nevertheless, the Court, as is the case with any other international organ with jurisdictional functions, has the inherent
authority to determine the scope of its own competence (compétence de la compétence).4

9. In interpreting the American Convention in accordance with the general rules of treaty interpretation enshrined in Article 31(1) of the Vienna Convention on the
Law of Treaties, bearing in mind the object and purpose of the American Convention, this Tribunal, in the exercise of the authority conferred on it by Article 62(3) of the American Convention, must act in a manner that preserves the integrity of the provisions of Article 62(1) of the Convention. It would be unacceptable to
subordinate these provisions to restrictions that would render inoperative the Court’s jurisdictional role, and consequently, the human rights protection system established in the Convention.5

10. Furthermore, the Court considers relevant to recall a recent case law with respect to the its ratione temporis competence6:


[…] The Court cannot exercise its contentious jurisdiction to apply the Convention and declare that its provisions have been violated when the alleged facts or the conduct of the defendant State which might involve international responsibility precede recognition of the Court’s jurisdiction.

[…] However, in case of a continuing or permanent violation, whose commencement occurred before the defendant State had recognized the Court’s contentious jurisdiction and which persists even after this recognition, the Court is competent to consider the actions and omissions that occurred after the recognition of its jurisdiction and the effects of the violations.

11. With the exception of certain matters concerning the criminal proceedings, most of the facts alleged in the Application in the present case occurred before the
State´s denunciation of the Convention came into effect. Taking into account the considerations set out in the preceding paragraphs, the Court reaffirms its
competence, according to the terms of Articles 62(3) and 78(2) of the Convention, to hear the present Case and render judgment.

III PROCEEDINGS BEFORE THE COMMISSION

12. On May 13, 1999, the British law firm Lovells filed a petition before the Inter- American Commission.

13. On October 10, 2001, during its 113th Regular Session, the Commission adopted Report No. 88/01, in which it found the claims in Mr. Caesar's petition to be admissible, and decided to continue with consideration of the merits of the case.

14. On October 10, 2002, during its 116th Regular Session, the Commission approved Report Nº 65/02 on the merits of the case, in which it concluded that:
The State is responsible for violating Mr. Caesar’s right to humane treatment under Articles 5(1) and 5(2) of the Convention, his right to be tried within a reasonable time under Article 8(1) of the Convention, and his right to judicial protection under Article 25 of the Convention, all in conjunction with violations of Article 1(1) of the Convention. In addition, the Commission finds that the State, by failing to provide for the right to be tried within a reasonable time under its domestic law and by authorizing a form of punishment that is incompatible with the right to humane treatment, is responsible for violating its obligations under Article 2 of the Convention to give domestic legal effects to the rights guaranteed under Articles 5(1), 5(2), 7(5) and 8(1) of the Convention. Based upon the information and evidence presented, the Commission did not find a violation of Mr. Caesar’s right to legal assistance under Article 8(2) of the Convention.

The Commission recommended that the State:

1. Grant Winston Caesar with an effective remedy, which includes compensation;

2. Adopt such legislative or other measures as may be necessary to give effect to the right to a trial within a reasonable time;

3. Adopt such legislative or other measures as may be necessary to abrogate the punishment of flogging as provided for under its Corporal Punishment (Offenders
Over Sixteen) Act of 1953

4. Adopt such legislative or other measures as may be necessary to ensure that Mr. Caesar’s conditions of detention comply with the standards of humane treatment mandated by article 5 of the Convention.

15. On November 27, 2002, the Commission transmitted Report Nº 65/02 to the State, with the request that the State report on the measures adopted to comply
with the recommendations contained therein, within two months from the date of transmission. By a communication of the same date, the Commission informed the
Petitioners that it had approved Report Nº 65/02, and requested that they provide, within one month, the information referred to in Article 43(3) of its Rules of
Procedure, regarding their views with respect to a possible referral of the case to the Inter-American Court.

16. On December 31, 2002, the Petitioners submitted their response to the Commission’s communication of November 27, 2002, indicating that “referral to the
Court is appropriate in this case, as the Court represents the only opportunity for Mr. Caesar to obtain a real and effective remedy for the violations of his human rights”.

17. On February 26, 2003, the Commission decided to submit the present case to the Court, as “the State did not provide [it] with a response to its merits Report”.

IV PROCEEDINGS BEFORE THE COURT

18. On February 26, 2003, the Commission filed before the Court the Application in the present case (supra para. 1).

19. The Commission appointed Robert K. Goldman, Juan E. Méndez, Clare K. Roberts and Santiago A. Canton as delegates, and Ariel Dulitzky and Brian D.
Tittemore as legal advisors.

20. On March 20, 2003, the Secretariat of the Court (hereinafter “the Secretariat”), following a preliminary examination of the Application by the President
of the Court (hereinafter “the President”), notified it with its annexes to the State and informed it regarding the time limits to answer the Application and to appoint its representation for the proceeding. On the instructions of the President, the Secretariat also advised the State of its right to designate a Judge ad hoc to
participate in the consideration of the case.

21. On March 24, 2003, in accordance with articles 35(1)(e) and (d) of the Rules of Procedure, the Secretariat notified the Application to the representatives of the alleged victim (hereinafter “the representatives”). Mrs. Jon Holland, Andrea Monks, Yasmin Walijje, Yvonne Gray and Peter Carter have represented Mr. Caesar in the proceedings before the Court.

22. The State failed to designate either agents or a Judge ad hoc before the time limit expired on April 20, 2003.

23. The representatives failed to submit their written brief containing pleadings, motions and evidence, before the time limit expired on April 24, 2003, as provided
under the terms of Article 35.4 of the Rules of Procedure in force at the time.

24. The State failed to submit its answer to the Application before the time limit expired on May 20, 2003, as provided under the terms of Article 37.1 of the Rules of Procedures in force at the time.

25. On April 12, 2004, the non-governmental organisations Harvard Law Student Advocates for Human Rights and Global Justice Centre submitted an amici curiae brief in the present case.

26. On September 6, 2004, the non-governmental organisation Interights submitted an amicus curiae brief in the present case.

27. On October 20, 2004, the President issued an Order, pursuant to article 47(3) of the Rules of Procedure, requiring Mr. Caesar, a witness called by the Inter-
American Commission, and Desmond Allum and Andrew Coyle, expert witnesses also called by the Inter-American Commission, to file their respective affidavits on the time limit of seven days, for transmission to the State and the representatives for their observations. The President also summoned the parties to present their final oral arguments on merits, possible reparations and costs at a public hearing to be held on November 15, 2004, with final written briefs to be filed no later than December 16, 2004, and ordered the appearance of Dr. Robert Ferris, an expert witness called by the Inter-American Commission.

28. On November 3, 2004, the Commission submitted the affidavits of Winston Caesar, Desmond Allum, Andrew Coyle and Robert Ferris. The State and the
representatives did not submit any observations.

29. On November 15, 2004, at the public hearing on the merits and possible reparations and costs, the Court heard the expert testimony of Dr. Ferris, called by
the Inter-American Commission, as well as the final oral arguments on the merits, possible reparations and costs of the Commission and the representatives.

Appearing before the Court:
for the Inter-American Commission:
Clare K. Roberts, delegate;
Brian Tittemore, advisor;
for the representatives:
Peter Carter, representative;
Andrea Monks, representative; and
expert witness proposed by the Inter-American Commission:
Robert Ferris.

30. The State did not appear in the public hearing. Accordingly, the hearing was held pursuant to Article 27 of the Rules of Procedure, which was read by the
Secretary at the beginning of the hearing and states the following:
Article 27. Default Procedure

1. When a party fails to appear in or continue with a case, the Court shall, on its own motion, take such measures as may be necessary to complete the consideration of the case.

2. When a party enters a case at a later stage of the proceedings, it shall take up the proceedings at that stage.

31. During the public hearing, the representatives submitted a document titled “Skeleton Argument on behalf of [Mr.] Winston Caesar” and the Commission
submitted a document titled “Oral Submissions […] on merits and possible reparations and costs”, as well as Mr. Caesar’s medical records from the Port of
Spain Hospital, as an exhibit to the October 5, 2004 affidavit of Dr. Robert Ferris; and four exhibits to the July 13, 2004 affidavit of Mr. Andrew Coyle.

32. On December 6, 2004, following the instructions of the President and in accordance with Article 45(2) of the Rules of Procedure, the Secretariat required
Trinidad and Tobago to submit, no later than January 15, 2005, all of Mr. Winston Caesar’s medical records from the prisons in which he was incarcerated and where he also received medical treatment, including those relating to his medical condition and treatment prior to and following the execution of his sentence of corporal punishment. The abovementioned documents were not submitted to the Court.

33. On December 13 and 16, 2004, the representatives and the Commission, respectively, presented their final written arguments on merits and possible
reparations and costs. The State did not present any final written arguments.

V PREVIOUS CONSIDERATIONS

34. The State did not appear in the proceedings before the Commission nor before the Court. Nevertheless, the Court has, of its own motion, taken the
necessary measures to complete consideration of the case and, having evaluated the arguments and the evidence tendered during the proceedings by the Inter-American Commission and by the representatives, now delivers its judgment.

35. In its final written arguments the Commission invoked Article 38(2) of the Court’s Rules of Procedure, and the Court deems it pertinent to examine the scope
and effect of its relevance to the circumstances of the present case.

36. Article 38(2) of the Rules of Procedure provides: In its answer, the respondent must state whether it accepts the facts and claims or whether it contradicts them, and the Court may consider accepted those facts that have not been expressly denied and the claims that have not been expressly contested.

37. The Court has held in previous cases that when a State does not specifically contest the Application, the facts on which it remains silent are presumed to be true, provided that the evidence before the Court is found to be consistent with those facts.7 In recent cases in which the State has presented no defense and has failed to appear at the hearings, the Court has ruled:

[…] that procedural inactivity does not give rise to a specific sanction against the parties, nor does it affect the development of the proceeding; but, it may eventually prejudice them, if they take the decision not to exercise fully their right to defense or to execute the appropriate procedural actions that are in their interests, in accordance with the audi alteram partem principle.

[…] International jurisprudence has recognized that the absence of one of the parties at any stage of the case, does not affect the validity of the judgment;8 therefore, pursuant to Article 68(1) of the Convention, Peru’s obligation to comply with this Court’s judgment in this case is in force.9

38. Pursuant to Article 38(2) of the Rules of Procedure, the Court is authorized to consider as established those facts that have not been expressly denied and those claims that have not been expressly contested; nevertheless, as master of its own jurisdiction (supra para. 8 and 11) and in exercise of the authority granted by Article 55 of the Rules of Procedure, the Court is at liberty to assess the facts, alone or in conjunction with other elements from the evidence available. It remains the case that the State’s inactivity before an international human rights tribunal not only may eventually work to its detriment but is contrary to the object, purpose and spirit of the American Convention and of the collective enforcement mechanism enshrined therein.

39. It should be emphasized that in this case the State failed to discharge its procedural responsibility to submit evidence in the course of the procedural stages
set out in Article 44 of the Rules of Procedure (supra para. 24). In consequence, the Court deems it appropriate to establish the proven facts of the instant case, taking into account, in addition to the aforementioned silence of the State, other elements that may assist it in establishing the truth of the facts, exercising its responsibility to protect human rights and applying, to this end, the pertinent provisions of the American Convention and of general international law.

VI EVIDENCE

40. Before turning to the analysis of the evidence received, in this chapter the Court, pursuant to articles 44 and 45 of the Rules of Procedure, will make reference
to certain general considerations applicable to the specific case, the majority of which have been previously expounded in the jurisprudence of this Tribunal.

41. The principle of the presence of parties to a dispute applies to evidentiary matters, and it involves respecting the parties’ right to defense. This principle is
contained in article 44 of the Rules of Procedure, regarding the opportunity in which the evidence must be submitted, in order to seek equality among the parties10.

42. It is well-settled law and practice that international procedures relating to the admission and evaluation of evidence are not subject to the same formalities as
domestic judicial procedures. This principle is especially applicable to international human rights tribunals, which enjoy greater flexibility in assessing the evidence
presented before them, in accordance with the rules of logic and on the basis of experience. The admission of evidence must be carried out with careful attention to the circumstances of the particular case, while bearing in mind the limits imposed by due respect for judicial certainty and procedural equality as between the parties.11 43. Therefore, the Court will proceed to examine and evaluate all the elements that comprise the corpus of evidence in the case.

a) DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE

44. Among the documentary evidence presented by the parties, the Commission submitted the alleged victim's declaration and the reports and exhibits of the expert witnesses (affidavits) pursuant to the President's Order of October 20, 2004 (supra para. 27). The Court deems pertinent to summarize these affidavits.
a) Testimony of Mr. Winston Caesar

In his affidavit, Mr. Winston Caesar, the alleged victim of the violations pleaded in the instant case, deposed as follows: He described the conditions of his incarceration at the Golden Grove Prision, and at the Carrera Prison where he shared a cell with four men, and slept on the floor on a thin mat. The cell was hot and had no ventilation, and did not have toilet facilities. At the Maximum Security Prison the water is turned on for only half an hour in the mornings and a afternoons. He is allowed to go out in the yard for about an hour every morning and afternoon during the week; on the weekends, he is allowed to go into the yard only in the morning. Since entering prison Mr. Caesar has lost most of his teeth and has not received any dental treatment. He has also suffered from hemorrhoids; he has had surgery but still has symptoms of the malady and thus requires another operation. In 1998 he discovered that he has a cyst in his groin area, which
will also require surgery. He knew that floggings take place at the Carrera Prison two or three times a year. On three occassions, at least, he was taken to another cell block to witness the infliction of similar punishment on four other men (infra para. 77).

Mr. Caesar described the way the flogging was carried out on February 5, 1998 (infra para. 76).

b) Expert Report of Mr. Desmond Allum, S.C. (Mr. Allum is a Senior Counsel of the Trinidad and Tobago Bar, currently President of the Criminal Bar Association, and a former President of the Bar Association of Trinidad and Tobago). The expert witness gave details of the history of the Corporal Punishment Act pointing out, inter alia, that, as amended in 1994, that Act provides that the sentence of flogging shall be carried out within six months of conviction,
except when an appeal has been filed. Moreover, he referred to the application of the “savings clause” in the Constitution of Trinidad and Tobago (infra para. 115). He stated that the conditions in Trinidad and Tobago's prisons are unsatisfactory, characterised by overcrowding, lack of proper light and ventilation, inadequate hygiene, and the absence of satisfactory medical and dental services.

c) Expert Report of Dr. Andrew Coyle

(Professor Coyle is professor of Prison Studies at the School of Law, King´s College, University of London)

Dr. Coyle referred to international law and standards with respect to the application of corporal punishment, and to the conditions of detention in the State’s prisons.

d) Testimony of Dr. Robert Ferris
(Consultant Forensic Psychiatrist and Clinical Director of Forensic and Secure Services for the Oxfordshire Mental Healthcare Trust)
Dr. Ferris interviewed Mr. Caesar in the Maximum Security Prison of Trinidad and Tobago. The expert witness expressed that Mr. Caesar does not suffer from any specific mental illness but, during his current period of imprisonment, he has suffered from depression and anxiety. Mr. Caesar experienced the suffering to be expected in a person anticipating a painful and brutal form of physical punishment. Furthermore, the intense mental suffering resulting from the corporal punishment would have been exacerbated by the long delay in its being carried out, and by the repeated “false starts” of the execution of the punishment. Regarding the punishment itself, Mr. Caesar suffered such intense fear, pain and humiliation that he fainted. The corporal punishment caused the alleged victim bruising and possible lacerations to his back but he does not show any scarring. After being flogged, Mr. Caesar was admitted to the infirmary, where he was treated with analgesic medication. Mr. Caesar suffered from psychological consequences after his corporal punishment, such as post-traumatic stress symptoms, including depressed mood, disturbing recollections, and a sensation of something hitting his back, which causes his shoulder to twitch involuntarily. There is a discrepancy on the timing of the hemorrhoid operation in Mr. Caesar's account (December 1997) and that of the medical records (January 1997). Moreover, Mr. Caesar was admitted to a hospital on December 27, 1997 for a day, and received a diagnosis of ureteric colic.

b) EXPERT EVIDENCE

45. During the public hearing (supra para. 29), the Court heard oral expert testimony from Dr. Ferris proposed by the Inter-American Commission. His
testimony and affidavit are summarized in the previous section of this chapter (supra para. 44 d).
*
c) ASSESSMENT OF THE EVIDENCE

46. In this case, as in others,12 the Court admits the probative value of those documents presented in timely fashion by the parties, the authenticity of which was
not challenged or questioned.

47. With respect to the declaration rendered by the alleged victim (supra para. 44(a)), the Court admits it insofar as it is in accordance with the Order of October
20, 2004 (supra para. 27). In this regard, because Mr. Caesar has a direct interest in the case, that declaration cannot be evaluated in isolation, but rather within the context of the entire corpus of evidence submitted in the proceeding. Thus, as it has held in similar cases, the Court considers that declaration to be of assistance inasmuch as it can provide information of relevance both as to the merits and as to reparations.13

48. Regarding the expert testimony given during the public hearing by Robert Ferris, as well as the affidavits and accompanying exhibits presented by experts
Desmond Allum, Andrew Coyle and Robert Ferris (supra para. 28), the Court rules that they are admissible, insofar as they are in conformity with the Order of October 20, 2004.


VII PROVEN FACTS

49. The Court considers that the following facts have been proven: Regarding Winston Caesar's criminal proceedings

49(1). On November 11, 1983, Mr. Winston Caesar was initially arrested as the suspect in connection with a rape that was alleged to have taken place in Trinidad on November 8, 1983. On November 16, 1983, he was released on bail. Between 1985 and 1986 committal proceedings took place in the Port of Spain Magistrate's 4th Court, which ordered him to stand trial on February 21, 1986.

49(2). On September 10, 1991, he was arrested and taken into custody for failing to appear in court. During his trial he was held at Port of Spain prison.

49(3). The trial was held in January 1992, before Mr. Justice Dayalsingh, in the High Court of Trinidad and Tobago. On January 10, 1992, Mr. Caesar was convicted of attempted rape under Trinidad and Tobago’s Offences Against the Person Act. He was sentenced to serve 20 years in a penitentiary with hard labor and to receive 15 strokes of the cat-o-nine tails. That same day Mr. Caesar signed a Notice of Appeal and remained in detention.

49(4). On November 26, 1993 Mr. Caesar's attorney filed an application for leave to appeal at the Court of Appeal of Trinidad and Tobago, challenging the legal basis for the ruling. On February 28, 1996, the Court of Appeal of Trinidad and Tobago dismissed Mr. Caesar’s application for leave to appeal apparently without giving reasons, and confirmed the conviction and sentence.

49(5). A counsel in Britain was asked by Mr. Caesar’s lawyers to consider whether there were reasonable grounds of appeal to the Privy Council in this case. On November 2, 1998, in his “note for instructing solicitors”, counsel indicated that an application for Special Leave to Appeal to the Privy Council was unlikely to succeed. In considering whether the delay of over 8 years between Mr. Caesar’s arrest and trial was so great as to amount to a denial of justice, and thus an infringement of his constitutional rights, counsel was of the opinion that although the delay was “very great” and might be imputed to the State, he nevertheless judged as minimal the degree of risk that the miscarriage of justice had been caused by the delay. Finally, the counsel considered that, although such delay was a point on which Mr. Caesar might have applied to the High Court of Trinidad and Tobago, he discounted the chances of success at the Privy Council.

Regarding the relevant law in Trinidad and Tobago

49(6). There are two principal laws that authorize the use of corporal punishment in Trinidad and Tobago. One of them is the Corporal Punishment Act (Offenders Over Eighteen). The terms of this legislation provide for the application of corporal punishment for certain crimes by, inter alia, the following methods: whipping with a rod of tamarind or similar switch and flogging with strokes of an object called a “cat-o-nine tails”.

49(7). Articles 2, 6 and 7 of the Corporal Punishment Act stipulate that:

2. Any male offender, above the age of sixteen years, on being convicted before the High Court of any of the offences mentioned in the Schedule, may be ordered by the Court to be flogged in addition to any other punishment to which he is liable.

6. A sentence of flogging shall be carried out as soon as may be practicable and shall in no case be carried out after the expiration of six months from the passing of the sentence.

7. The instrument to be used for carrying out a sentence of flogging shall be the ordinary cat-o-nine tails and for carrying out a sentence of whipping a rod of tamarind, birch or other switches or in either case such other instrument as the President may from time to time approve.

49(8). The “cat-o-nine tails” consists of a plaited rope instrument of nine knotted thongs of cotton cord, each of which is approximately 30 inches long and less than one quarter of an inch in diameter. The thongs are attached to a handle. The nine cotton thongs are lashed across the back of the subject, between the shoulders and the lower area of the spine.

49(9). The Corporal Punishment (Offenders Over Sixteen) Act of 1953 was amended in 1994 and in 2000. The 1994 amendment provided for the suspension of the original six-month time limit for the carrying out of a sentence of corporal punishment while an appeal is pending. The 2000 amendment provides that corporal punishment may be administered only to persons over the age of 18.

49(10). Sections 4 a) and b), 5 b), and 6(1) and (3) of the Constitution of Trinidad and Tobago provide as follows:

4. It is hereby recognized and declared that in Trinidad and Tobago there have existed and shall continue to exist […]:
a) the right of the individual to life, liberty, security of the person and enjoyment of property and the right no to be deprived thereof except by due process of law;
b) the right of the individual to equality before the law and the protection of the law;

5. (2) […The] Parliament may not: […]
b) impose or authorize the imposition of cruel and unusual treatment or punishment […]
c) deprive a person who has been arrested or detainediii. of the right to be brought promptly before an appropriate judicial authority; […]
e) deprive a person of the right to a fair hearing in accordance with the principles of fundamental justice for the determination of his rights and obligations; […]

6. (1) Nothing in sections 4 and 5 shall invalidate a) an existing law […]
(3) In this section- […]
“existing law” means a law that had effect as part of the law of Trinidad and Tobago immediately before the commencement of this Constitution, and includes any enactment referred to in Subsection (1) […]

49(11). Section 6 of the Constitution of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago precludes individuals from challenging, under Sections 4 and 5 of the Constitution, all laws or acts carried out pursuant to any law in force in Trinidad and Tobago before 1976, the year the Constitution entered into force.

49(12). The Constitution of Trinidad and Tobago does not provide, among its prescribed fundamental rights and freedoms, the right to a trial within a reasonable time.


Regarding Mr. Caesar's detention and health conditions

49(13). Mr. Caesar has been incarcerated since September 10, 1991 (supra para. 49(2)) and has served 13 years of his 20-year sentence.

49(14). The prison system in Trinidad and Tobago consists of the following five prisons: Port of Spain Prison, Golden Grove Prison, Maximum Security Prison, Carrera Convict Prison and Tobago Prison.

49(15). During the course of his criminal proceedings, Mr. Caesar has been incarcerated at four of the five prisons in Trinidad and Tobago. After his arrest in 1991, he was held for a short time at the Port of Spain Prison, and he was then transferred to the Golden Grove Prison in Arouca, where he stayed for at least two months. Then he was returned to the Port of Spain Prison for two months. Subsequently, Mr. Caesar was sent back again to the Golden Grove Prison, where he remained until his trial in February 1996 when he was transferred to the Port of Spain Prison. Some time after, he was transferred to the Golden Grove Prison once again. After his case was dismissed by the Court of Appeal, he was returned to the Port of Spain Prison, where he was held for at least two months. He was then sent to the Carrera Convict Prison, where he was detained until November 1999. Finally, he was transferred to the Maximum Security Prison, where he remains to date.

49(16). In Golden Grove Prison and in Carrera Convict Prison the alleged victim shared a cell with 4 or 5 other men and slept on the floor with a thin mat or on an old piece of carpet. There were no toilet facilities and a “slop pail” was used by everyone in the cell. There was always a stench of human waste in the cell, which had little ventilation and was hot.

49(17). At the Maximum Security Prison Mr. Caesar is allowed outside his prison cell for one hour during the mornings and one hour during the evenings.

49(18). Since his incarceration, he has suffered serious health problems that have not been properly treated by the State authorities. His health has deteriorated over time. He has not received adequate dental treatment while in prison (he has lost most of his teeth, with only six remaining in his lower jaw). Subsequent to incarceration, Mr. Caesar developed chronic hemorrhoids from which he continues to suffer, and he has had a cyst in his testicles since 1998.

49(19). Mr. Caesar did not receive timely treatment with respect to his hemorrhoid condition. In 1992 a doctor recommended that he undergo surgery for his hemorrhoids. The procedure was postponed at least twice and, during the delay, his condition worsened. The surgery finally took place at the end of January, 1997. At the present time he continues to suffer and bleed heavily because of this condition.

49(20). On December 27, 1997 Mr. Caesar was admitted to a hospital, where he stayed for one day, and received a diagnosis of left-sided ureteric colic, which is a condition causing acute and severe pain in the lower abdomen.

49(21). In 1998 a doctor advised Mr. Caesar that the cyst on his testicles required surgery. However, he still has not received that operation.

49(22). Mr. Caesar’s detention conditions are indicative of the general conditions in Trinidad and Tobago’s prison system.

Regarding Mr. Caesar's Corporal Punishment

49(23). Between April and June of 1996, Mr. Caesar was taken to the Carrera Convict Prison.

49(24). Prisoners who are sentenced to corporal punishment are usually held beforehand in the Carrera Convict Prison, with the purpose of executing the sentence. Corporal punishment is carried out in this prison only at specified times during the year.

49(25). Mr. Caesar was aware of the times designated for corporal punishment, and his emotional state deteriorated as these times approached. Between November of 1996 and the day the flogging was inflicted, Mr. Caesar was taken on three or four separate occasions to another cell with other prisoners where they were kept overnight. Each morning the other prisoners were taken out, one by one, for their corporal punishment to be carried out. On each occasion, Mr. Caesar observed that the prisoners returned severely injured, but he was not flogged and rather was returned to his cell without any explanation.

49(26). On February 5, 1998, Mr. Caesar was subjected to 15 strokes of the “cat-o-nine tails”, in accordance with his sentence.

49(27). For the administration of the flogging, Mr. Caesar was required to “lie spreadeagled and naked” and was strapped to a metal contraption, known in prison as the “Merry Sandy”. His hands and feet were tied tightly to the metal structure and his head was covered with a sheet. Once strapped to the iron frame with his back exposed and his clothing removed, Mr. Caesar was then flogged with the “cat-o-nine tails”.

49(28). The punishment was carried out despite his physical condition (supra para. 49(18)). There were at least six persons present in the room where the punishment was carried out, including the Supervisor of Prisons and the prison medic. Before the flogging, the doctor examined Mr. Caesar’s blood pressure and other vital signs, and then gave his consent to continue. During the lashing, Mr. Caesar screamed out in pain, and eventually fainted. When he regained consciousness, the Superintendent ordered that he be taken to the infirmary.

49(29). There are no medical records regarding the administration of Mr. Caesar's corporal punishment.

Physical and psychological consequences of Mr. Caesar's corporal punishment

49(30). Mr. Caesar remained in the infirmary for two months after the corporal punishment, and did not receive any medical treatment for the flogging except for orally-administered painkillers. Mr. Caesar continues to suffer pain in his shoulders.

49(31). As a result of the punishment, Mr. Caesar has suffered depression, and acute anxiety of sufficient severity to warrant a diagnosis of, at a minimum, an adjustment disorder.

49(32). Mr. Caesar may have suffered from post-traumatic stress disorder in the the first or second year after the corporal punishment was inflicted. Although he continues to have some post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms, such as depressed mood, intrusive recollections, and a sensation of something hitting his back, which causes his shoulder to twitch involuntarily, they do not currently meet the diagnosis of that disorder.

Regarding Mr. Caesar's damages
49(33). The facts of the present case have resulted in the alteration of Mr. Caesar's physical and psychological condition, causing him damages.

VIII ARTICLES 5(1) AND 5(2) OF THE AMERICAN CONVENTION IN CONJUNCTION WITH ARTICLES 1.1 AND 2 OF THE CONVENTION
(RIGHT TO PERSONAL INTEGRITY)
Arguments of the Commission

50. With regard to Article 5 of the American Convention, the Inter-American Commission argued that:
a) the concept of “inhuman treatment” includes “degrading treatment”;
b) torture is an aggravated form of inhuman treatment perpetrated with the purpose of obtaining information, confessions or inflicting a punishment. The essential criterion by which to distinguish torture from other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatments or punishment consists in the intensity of the suffering inflicted;
c) many instruments of human rights law or international humanitarian law expressly prohibit corporal punishment. Furthermore, many international and national tribunals and authorities have considered that corporal punishment is incompatible with national and international guarantees against torture and other inhuman treatment, such as the United Nations Special Rapporteur on Torture, the Human Rights Committee, the European Court on Human Rights, the European Commission on Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatments or Punishment Prevention;
d) the use of the “cat-o-nine tails” seeks and achieves the effect of causing serious physical, mental and psychological suffering, as well as physical damage to the alleged victim’s body;
e) the waiting period for the implementation of the corporal punishment can cause serious anguish, stress and mental suffering, including the loss of intestine and bladder control;

Regarding Mr. Caesar’s corporal punishment
f) by imposing upon Mr. Caesar a sentence of 15 strokes with the “cat-o-nine tails”, the State violated his right to physical, mental and moral integrity under Article 5.1 of the Convention, and his right not to be subjected to torture or other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment under article 5.2 of the Convention;
g) the lapse of time in which Mr. Caesar was waiting for the punishment caused him great anguish, stress and fear, as he was exposed to the suffering of other inmates subjected to corporal punishment on four separate occasions, without knowing whether the punishment might also be inflicted upon him;
h) the State flagrantly violated its own law in executing Mr. Caesar’s punishment
23 months –and not 6 months as provided by law– after sentencing;
i) the suffering caused to Mr. Caesar by the punishment imposed was aggravated by his age (49 years); by his vulnerable physical condition; by the treatment he was subjected to before and after the flogging; and by the manner in which the corporal punishment was carried out;
j) as recognized under international standards governing detainees and prisoners (such as Principles 2 and 4(b) of the United Nations’ Principles of Medical Ethics), the availability of competent medical officers to supervise and treat prisoners is fundamental to the humane treatment of detainees. The doctor present at the punishment authorized its infliction, notwithstanding his knowledge of Mr. Caesar’s precarious medical condition, due to the surgery carried out some weeks before. These circumstances raise serious questions regarding whether health personnel in the prison have complied with international law;
k) the fact that the treatment given to Mr. Caesar was imposed as a form of criminal sanction does not affect the State’s obligation to comply with the requirements of articles 5.1 and 5.2 of the Convention, as the prohibition of torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading punishment or treatment is absolute;
l) in mantaining a law that permits the infliction of corporal punishment by flogging with the “cat-o–nine tails”, the State failed to meet the general obligation to give internal legal effect to the rights under Article 5 of the Convention, as imposed by Article 2;
m) the punishment of flogging with the “cat-o–nine tails” is, by its very nature, intention and effects, inconsistent with the standards of humane treatment provided by Article 5.1 and 5.2 of the Convention and, for that reason, the State has the obligation under Article 2 of the Convention to abrogate such a law;Regarding Mr. Caesar’s detention conditions
n) the State is responsible for other violations of the right to humane treatment under Articles 5.1 and 5.2 of the Convention due to the conditions in which Mr. Caesar was detained;
o) in the present case the State failed to meet domestic and international standards on conditions of detention: between January 1991 and November 1999, Mr. Caesar was subjected to the following conditions: an overcrowded cell, poor sanitation, little light and ventilation, as well as inadequate medical treatment, all of which violated his right have his physical, mental and moral integrity respected and constitutes a cruel, inhuman or degrading punishment or treatment;
p) Mr. Caesar has suffered from serious health problems, which have included contracting tuberculosis and chronic hemorrhoids. Although he has been examined by a doctor on several occasions, his medical treatment has been inadequate or unresponsive and his medical condition has deteriorated with the passage of time; and
q) the impact of these conditions has been exacerbated by his health problems and by the prolonged periods of time for which Mr. Caesar has been incarcerated.

Arguments of the representatives

51. The representatives, with respect to Article 5 of the American Convention, stated that:
a) any sentence of whipping or flogging is cruel, inhuman and degrading. Moreover, the principle of humanity requires the prohibition of all corporal punishment;
b) the term “torture” applies to the aggravated mistreatment of persons. Torture might be expected to leave long-term effects, either by way of post-traumatic
stress, or serious injury, but it need not to do so. Torture is often associated with actions that subject the alleged victim to sustained and unpredictable cruelty over which there is no legal restraint. Furthermore, punishment duly prescribed by law is capable of amounting to torture. Finally, cruel, inhuman or degrading punishment inevitably causes problems that cannot be remedied;

Regarding Mr. Caesar's Corporal Punishment
c) the sentence of corporal punishment and the manner in which it was carried out violate Articles 5.1 and 5.2 of the Convention;
d) the time limit established by the Corporal Punishment Act for carrying out the
flogging is absolute and cannot be extended because of the prisoner’s illhealth;
e) the execution of the judgment that ordered corporal punishment or treatment is cruel, inhuman and degrading itself, even without the aggravating factors that Mr. Caesar suffered. Moreover, the corporal punishment was carried out 23 months after his sentencing and was therefore in flagrant violation of the State’s own law;
f) Mr. Caesar experienced severe anguish, stress and fear as he was exposed to the suffering of other inmates, as well as during the moments immediately
preceding his actual flogging, due to his recent hemorrhoid surgery;
g) the carrying out of the corporal punishment in the presence of complete strangers severely humiliated Mr. Caesar;
h) the doctor present during the corporal punishment breached his ethical code by permitting the punishment to be executed, as he was fully aware of the
alleged victim’s health condition; and
i) the State violated Article 2 of the Convention by failing to give domestic legal effect to the rights protected under Article 5 of the Convention; Regarding Mr. Caesar’s detention conditions
j) the conditions of detention to which Mr. Caesar has been subjected violate Articles 5.1 and 5.2 of the Convention and, moreover, fail to meet the
standards required by the relevant United Nations Minumum Rules; and
k) Mr. Caesar was not given the necessary surgery until five or six years after the pertinent medical recommendation, in breach of the relevant United Nations Minimum Rules, a situation that worsened his condition. The date of the hemorrhoid operation mentioned by Mr. Caesar may be incorrect, as it may have occurred in early 1997.

The Court’s assesment

52. Article 5(1) and 5(2) of the Convention provide:
1. Every person has the right to have his physical, mental, and moral integrity respected.

2. No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman, or degrading punishment or treatment. All persons deprived of their liberty shall be treated with
respect for the inherent dignity of the human person.

53. Article 1(1) of the American Convention stipulates:
[t]he States Parties to this Convention undertake to respect the rights and freedoms recognized herein and to ensure to all persons subject to their jurisdiction the free and full exercise of those rights and freedoms, without any discrimination for reasons of race, color, sex, language, religion, political oar other opinion, national or social origin, economic status, birth, or any other social condition.

54. Article 2 of the American Convention provides:
[w]here the exercise of any of the rights or freedoms referred to in Article 1 is not already ensured by legislative or other provisions, the States Parties undertake to adopt, in accordance with their constitutional processes and the provisions of this Convention, such legislative or other measures as may be necessary to give effect to those rights or freedoms.

55. In this section the Court will address the following issues under Article 5(1) and 5(2), in relation to Articles 1(1) and 2, of the Convention:
a) the lawfulness of the State’s imposition of the corporal punishment of flogging under said provisions and the manner in which the judicial corporal punishment was inflicted upon Mr. Caesar;
b) whether the State has failed to comply with its general obligation under Article 2 of the Convention to give domestic legal effect to the rights protected under Article 5; and
c) whether Mr. Caesar’s conditions of detention amounted to a violation of said provisions on the part of the State.
*
Regarding the lawfulness of the State’s imposition of the corporal punishment of flogging under Article 5(1) and 5(2), in conjunction with Article 1(1), of the Convention, and the manner in which the judicial corporal punishment was inflicted upon Mr. Caesar

56. The Commission submitted that the form of punishment to which Mr. Caesar was subjected, is “by its nature, intention and effects [inherently] inconsistent with
the [minimum] standards of humane treatment under Articles 5(1) and 5(2) of the American Convention”.

57. To judge whether the State violated Article 5(1) and 5(2) of the American Convention in the instant case, the Court must first decide upon the compatibility of
a state’s imposition of corporal punishment, specifically by flogging, with regard to said provision. To this end, the Court deems it pertinent to offer an overview of this punishment under international and domestic law and practice.

58. Every international human rights instrument of general scope, whether regional or universal, contains provisions similar in content to Article 5 of the American Convention.14 These general provisions are complemented by the express prohibition of torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment in particular international instruments and, of relevance to the instant case, the prohibition of the use of corporal punishment.15

59. The Inter-American Court has held that

[…] torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading punishment or treatment are strictly prohibited by international human rights law. The prohibition of torture and cruel,
inhuman or degrading punishment or treatment is absolute and non-derogable, even under the most difficult circumstances, such as war, threat of war, the fight against terrorism and any other crimes, martial law or a state of emergency, civil commotion or conflict, suspension of constitutional guarantees, internal political instability or other public emergencies or catastrophes.16

60. In particular, international case law and the following authorities have considered that corporal punishment is incompatible with international guarantees
against torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment.

61. The United Nations Special Rapporteur on Torture has stated that Article 31 of the United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners reflects the international prohibition of cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment, and, more broadly, that "corporal punishment is inconsistent with the prohibition against torture, and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment enshrined, inter alia, in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from Being Subjected to Torture, Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, and the Convention against Torture, Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.”17

62. Similarly, the United Nations Human Rights Committee has concluded that the prohibition of torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment
contained in Article 7 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights should be extended to corporal punishment, “including excessive chastisement ordered as punishment for a crime, or as an educative or disciplinary measure”.18 With respect to the use of corporal punishment in Trinidad and Tobago, the
Committee specified in its Concluding Observations on a report submitted by Trinidad and Tobago under Article 40 of the Covenant that it was “disturbed to learn that apart from prohibiting corporal punishment for persons under 18 years of age, the State party is still practicing the punishment of flogging and whipping which are cruel and inhuman punishment prohibited by article 7.” It thus recommended that the State immediately abolish all sentences of flogging or whipping.19

63. The Human Rights Committee has reached similar conclusions in its decisions on individual complaints. For example, in the case of Sooklal v. Trinidad and Tobago, the Committee ruled that the administration of birching provided for by the law of the State as a sanction constitutes cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment contrary to Article 7 of the Covenant. Similarly, in the case Osbourne v. Jamaica, the Committee found that by carrying out a sentence of whipping with a tamarind switch, the State party had breached its obligations under said provision.20 In that ruling the Committee stated that:

[i]rrespective of the nature of the crime that is to be punished, however brutal it may be, it is the firm opinion of the Committee that corporal punishment constitutes cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment or punishment contrary to Article 7 of the Covenant.

64. In the Case of Tyrer v. United Kingdom, the European Court of Human Rights addressed the incompatibility of corporal punishment with the right to humane
treatment under Article 3 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. In the case of a minor who had been subjected to three strokes of the birch pursuant to domestic legislation in the Isle of Man (United Kingdom), the Court concluded that the treatment was degrading and as such violated Article 3 of the European Convention. The European Court held that: [t]he very nature of judicial corporal punishment is that it involves one human being inflicting physical violence on another human being. Furthermore, it is institutionalised violence, that is in the present case violence permitted by the law, ordered by the judicial authorities of the State and carried out by the police authorities of the State […] Thus, although the applicant did not suffer any severe or long-lasting physical effects, his punishment - whereby he was treated as an object in the power of the authorities - constituted an assault on precisely that which it is one of the main purposes of Article 3 (art. 3) to protect, namely a person's dignity and physical integrity. Neither can it be excluded that the punishment may have had adverse psychological effects. The institutionalized character of this violence is further compounded by the whole aura of official procedure attending the punishment and by the fact that those inflicting it were total strangers to the offender.21

65. Furthermore, norms of international humanitarian law absolutely prohibit the use of corporal punishment in situations of armed conflict, as well as in times of
peace.22

66. It should be noted that a number of those States that still retained corporal punishment have recently abolished it.23 Moreover, an increasing number of
domestic courts have concluded that the imposition of corporal punishment, regardless of the circumstances of the case and the modalities through which it is
carried out, constitutes cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment, and represents a form of punishment no longer acceptable in a democratic society.24

67. The European Court of Human Rights has held that a treatment must attain a minimum level of severity in order to be considered inhuman or degrading and, in
the extreme, torture. The evaluation of this minimum level is relative and depends on the circumstances of each case, such as the duration of the treatment, and its
physical and mental effects.25

68. Furthermore, in the Celebici case the Trial Chamber of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia analyzed international humanitarian law
and human rights law standards, on the basis of which it defined inhuman or cruel treatment as: […] an intentional act or omission, that is an act which, judged objectively, is deliberate and not accidental, that causes serious mental or physical suffering or injury or constitutes a serious attack on human dignity.26

69. For its part, the Inter-American Court has, since the case of Loayza Tamayo v. Perú, held that: [t]he violation of the right to physical and psychological integrity of persons is a category of violation that has several gradations and embraces treatment ranging from torture to other types of humiliation or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment with varying degrees of physical and psychological effects caused by endogenous and exogenous factors which must be proven in each specific situation. The European Court of Human Rights has declared that, even in the absence of physical injuries, psychological and moral suffering, accompanied by psychic disturbance during questioning, may be deemed inhuman treatment. The degrading aspect is characterized by the fear, anxiety and inferiority induced for the purpose of humiliating and degrading the victim and breaking his physical and moral resistance.27

70. The abovementioned international instruments and its own case law lead the Court to conclude that there is a universal prohibition of torture and other cruel,
inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, independent of any codification or declaration, since all these practices constitute a violation of peremptory norms of international law.28 The Court also notes the growing trend towards recognition, at international and domestic levels, of the impermissible character of corporal
punishment, with regard to its inherently cruel, inhuman and degrading nature. In consequence, a State Party to the American Convention, in compliance with its
obligations arising from Articles 1(1), 5(1) and 5(2) of that instrument, is under an obligation erga omnes to abstain from imposing corporal punishment, as well as to prevent its administration, for constituting, in any circumstance, a cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.

71. In the instant case, Mr. Caesar was subjected to corporal punishment by flogging, pursuant to a sentence delivered by the High Court of Trinidad and Tobago, according to the terms of Trinidad and Tobago’s Corporal Punishment Act. This law authorizes domestic courts to order the application of sentences of corporal punishment for certain crimes, for any male offender, in addition to any other punishment for which he is liable, whether by flogging with a “cat-o-nine tails” or by whipping with a tamarind rod, birch or other switches, “or in either case such other instruments as the President may from time to time approve” (supra para. 49(7)).

72. According to the evidence presented to the Court, the “cat-o-nine tails” consists of a plaited rope instrument made up of nine knotted thongs of cotton cord,
30 inches long and less than one quarter of an inch in diameter, attached to a handle, which are lashed across the back of the subject, between the shoulders and
the lower area of the spine (supra para. 49(8)). The instrument is designed to bruise and lacerate the skin of the subject and is also intended to cause severe
physical and psychological suffering. As such, the Court is convinced that the cat-onine tails, as regulated and used in Trinidad and Tobago for the administration of corporal punishment by flogging, is used to inflict a cruel, inhuman and degrading form of punishment.

73. Regarding the law and practice in Trinidad and Tobago of judicial corporal punishment by flogging, the Court considers that the very nature of this punishment
reflects an institutionalization of violence, which, although permitted by the law, ordered by the State’s judges and carried out by its prison authorities, is a sanction
incompatible with the Convention.29 As such, corporal punishment by flogging constitutes a form of torture and, therefore, is a violation per se of the right of any
person submitted to such punishment to have his physical, mental and moral integrity respected, as provided in Article 5(1) and 5(2), in connection with Article
1(1) of the Convention. Accordingly, Trinidad and Tobago’s Corporal Punishment Act must be considered in contravention to Article 5(1) and 5(2) of the Convention (infra para. 94).

74. While the Inter-American Court is neither authorized nor required by the Convention to pronounce on the compatibility of the actions of individuals with the
Convention, it is nevertheless obvious that the conduct and decisions of civil servants and state agents must be framed within those international obligations. In the
instant case, where the Corporal Punishment Act of Trinidad and Tobago gives the relevant judicial officer an option to order corporal punishment in addition to
imprisonment in certain circumstances, the Court feels bound to put on record its profound regret that the presiding officer in the State´s High Court saw fit to
exercise an option which would manifestly have the effect of inflicting a punishment that is not merely in blatant violation of the State´s international obligations under the Convention, but also is universally stigmatized as cruel, inhuman, and degrading.
*
75. The Court will now examine the particular circumstances in which Mr. Caesar’s sentence of corporal punishment was carried out.

76. It is established that State agents flogged Mr. Caesar with a “cat-o-nine tails” on February 5, 1998. Mr. Caesar´s affidavit leaves little to the imagination
concerning the physical and emotional impact of this punishment, as well as the anguish and suffering he experienced in the moments immediately preceding the
punishment. He described the experience as follows:
[…] On 5 February 1998, I received 15 strokes with the cat-o-nine tails. […] there were 4 other men in the cell with me. I was the last to be beaten. I was even more frightened this time […] I was still recuperating and was weak when they took me to be beaten. I was afraid that I would not come out of the beating alive because of my condition. […]

[…] I was taken to the room where I was to be beaten. […] the prison doctor, […] the Chief Infirmary Officer at the Port of Spain Prison, a Prison Supervisor […], two other men who I did not know but I believe that they were from the Ministry of National Security and two prison officers were present in the room. [The prison doctor] told me to take off my clothes. I told [him] that I just had surgery. He knew this. He did not reply. I took my clothes off. [The prison doctor] took my blood pressure [and] then said “he alright, go ahead.” […]

[…] I was then made to lie spread eagled and naked on a metal contraption, known among the prisoners as the “Merry Sandy.” It had that kind of spread-eagled shape. I could not turn my head. I could only stare ahead. The two prison officers strapped me on to the “Merry Sandy”. They tied my hands and feet tightly to it. They then covered my head with a sheet. I was scared. I was nauseous. My body was shaking. I felt a terrible painful lash to my shoulder. My body tensed. I heard a male voice say “one”. This was the man beating me. I did not know who he was. The man beating me waited for my muscles to relax, brought the cat-o-nine down on by [sic] back again and said “two”. Each time he waited for my muscles to become less tense before hitting me. Each time he said out loud the number of lashes I had already received. The pain was unbearable. All this time he was lashing me I was screaming in pain, becoming hysterical, screaming that they were trying to kill me. I cannot remember how many blows I received when I began to feel faint […] The beating nevertheless continued and I passed out. When I awoke I was lying on a stretcher in the same room. The Superintendent said that I was to be taken to the infirmary.
[…] I remained in the infirmary for 2 months after the beating. I was beaten on my back and shoulders. My shoulders were bruised and I was in a lot of pain. I was weak.
[…] I received no medical treatment for the beating except painkillers. I was kept in the infirmary because I was ill and weak from surgery and the authorities were afraid something might happen to me.
[…] Up to the present time I continue to feel the blows and still suffer pain in my shoulders.30

77. The physical harm and pain caused by the flogging were exacerbated by the anguish, stress and fear Mr. Caesar suffered during the period in which he awaited his punishment. Moreover, on three or four separate occasions, he was exposed to the suffering of other prisoners subjected to similar punishment. He stated: I was trembling. I was taken downstairs to another cell block and put in a cell with four other men. We were kept in the cell overnight. I was tense and frightened and did not sleep that night. […] The officers [took one of the prisioners and] brought him back about half an hour after. […] I became very frightened when I saw his condition. […] It was mental torture waiting for my turn and I was shaking. […] I was subjected to the same thing on 3 further occasions. On each of those occasions I was placed in a cell downstairs with four other prisoners. On each occasion the other men were beaten and I was not. It was a lot of torture for me. […] I watched some of them cry. […] I suffered mental and emotional torture. I was very frightened each time. […]31

78. Mr. Caesar was subjected to the threat of imminent physical abuse, which could have been inflicted at any moment, and was deliberately forced to witness the
effects of such punishment upon the other prisoners, causing him severe anguish and fear.

79. Moreover, the Court shares the Commission’s view that the sentence was carried out in a manner that severely humiliated Mr. Caesar. He was forced to lie
“spread-eagled and naked” on a metal contraption before at least six persons, completely immobilized, while the strokes were delivered.

80. In keeping with domestic regulations and practice,32 the prison doctor was present before and during the alleged victim’s flogging to advise on the prisoner’s
physical condition, and to decide whether the punishment could be safely carried out. The representatives alleged that, by authorizing the flogging despite his knowledge of Mr. Caesar’s medical condition, the prison doctor acted in violation of his ethical duty. The Commission argued that such circumstances raise serious questions as to whether the medical personnel in the State’s prisons comply with international standards governing the conduct of health personnel, in particular those set forth in the United Nations’ Principles of Medical Ethics Relevant to the Role of Health Personnel in the Protection of Prisoners and Detainees against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.33

81. As noted above, the Court does not assess individual responsibilites; its function is rather to protect the victims, determine when their rights have been
violated and order reparation for the damage caused by the State responsible for such acts.34

82. The Commission also argued that the evidence presented confirms that the suffering experienced by Mr. Caesar was also exacerbated by his own vulnerable medical condition, specifically owing to his surgery for hemorrhoids only weeks before the flogging. The alleged victim himself affirmed this situation in his affidavit. However, the representatives stated during the public hearing that the date alleged as the day of the surgery may have been incorrect.

83. It was proven that the alleged victim developed hemorrhoids during his detention and, as a result, underwent surgery in January 1997 (supra para. 49(19)).
Since there is no showing that the abovementioned surgery occurred a few weeks before the flogging, there are no grounds for finding aggravating circumstances in this context.

84. It is established that, after the flogging, the only medical treatment provided by the State consisted of painkillers, notwithstanding the fact that he had been
injured and that his medical condition was already precarious. This conclusion is supported by Robert Ferris’ statement that he found no medical records of any kind relating to the corporal punishment, its effects on Mr. Caesar or any treatment provided (supra para. 49(29)).

85. The Commission further argued that, since the punishment was carried out 23 months after the alleged victim’s sentencing, it was in flagrant violation of the
State’s own domestic law, as well as contrary to Article 5(1) and 5(2) of the Convention.

86. The Court notes that Section 6 of the Corporal Punishment Act of Trinidad and Tobago requires a sentence of corporal punishment to be carried out within six months from the date of sentencing. As shown above, the 1994 amendment to the Corporal Punishment Act provided that any period of appeal would not count in reckoning the statutory limit of six months (supra para. 49(9)). This amendment, however, was not applicable to Mr. Caesar’s situation, since he was sentenced prior to its entry into force. In any event, the flogging was performed some five years and seven months outside the statutory limit, so that it can be reasonably assumed that the delay both augmented and extended his mental anguish.35

87. The Court, thus, has endeavored to assess all of the aggravating circumstances which arose in the infliction of Mr. Caesar’s punishment and has taken into account the degree of intensity of physical and mental pain suffered by him, which was in turn exacerbated by the treatment he received before and after the
flogging. In that regard, the Commission argued that there has been an additional violation of the Convention in relation to those aggravating circumstances.

88. In the preceding paragraphs, the Court declared that the corporal punishment by flogging, as it was examined in the instant case, must be considered as a form of torture and is, therefore, contrary per se to Article 5(1) and 5(2) of the Convention and to peremptory norms of international law (supra para. 73). Furthermore, the Court is cognizant of the severe aggravating circumstances discussed above, namely: the extreme humiliation caused by the flogging itself; the anguish, stress and fear experienced while awaiting the punishment in prison, a period that was marked by excessive delay; and Mr. Caesar’s observation of the suffering of other prisoners who had been flogged. The extreme gravity and the degree of intensity of physical and psychological suffering caused by these circumstances upon Mr. Caesar will be considered when assessing the pertinent reparations (infra para. 127).

89. In all the circumstances, therefore, the Court finds that the State violated Article 5(1) and 5(2), in connection with Article 1(1), of the Convention, to the
detriment of Mr. Winston Caesar.
*
On whether the State has failed to comply with its general obligation under Article 2 of the Convention to give domestic legal effect to the rights protected under Article 5 of said Convention.

90. The Court now will assess whether the State has fulfilled its general obligations under Article 2 of the Convention in this regard.

91. In interpreting Article 2 of the Convention, the Court has held that:36 [i]f the States, pursuant to Article 2 of the American Convention, have a positive
obligation to adopt the legislative measures necessary to guarantee the exercise of the rights recognized in the Convention, it follows, then, that they also must refrain both from promulgating laws that disregard or impede the free exercise of these rights, and from suppressing or modifying the existing laws protecting them. These acts would likewise constitute a violation of Article 2 of the Convention.

92. The violations of Article 5(1) and 5(2) of the Convention to the detriment of Mr. Caesar resulted not only from the actions and omissions of State agents, but
above all from the very existence and the terms of Trinidad and Tobago’s Corporal Punishment Act (supra para. 73).

93. The Court has declared this law to be incompatible with Article 5 of the American Convention. Once the Convention entered into force for Trinidad and
Tobago, the State should have adapted its legislation to the obligations set forth in that treaty, as to ensure the most effective protection of the human rights
enumerated therein. It should be reaffirmed that, pursuant to Article 2 of the Convention, the duty to adapt domestic legislation is by its very nature one of results
and, therefore, the denunciation of the Convention cannot extinguish the State’s international obligations assumed while the treaty was in force. Such obligations
have an autonomous and automatic character and do not depend upon an actual ruling of the Convention’s organs of supervision regarding a specific domestic law.

94. Having declared the incompatibility of the Corporal Punishment Act with the Convention, the Court finds that, by its failure to abrogate this law following its
ratification of the Convention, the State did not comply with its obligations under Article 2, in relation to Article 5(1) and 5(2) of the Convention.
*
On whether Mr. Caesar’s conditions of detention constitute a violation of Article 5(1) and 5(2) of the Convention.

95. The Commission argued that the State is responsible for further violations of Mr. Caesar’s right to humane treatment under Article 5(1) and 5(2) of the Convention due to the conditions in which he has been detained. The Commission submitted that, owing to these conditions of detention, the State has failed to meet domestic and international standards in its treatment of Mr. Caesar. Furthermore, the Commission argued that the impact of these conditions has been aggravated by the prolonged periods of time during which Mr. Caesar has been incarcerated in connection with his criminal proceedings.

96. In this regard, the Court has held that, in accordance with Article 5(1) and (2) of the Convention, […] all persons deprived of their liberty have the right to detention conditions that are compatible with their human dignity. On other occasions, the Court has indicated that detention in conditions of overcrowding, with lack of ventilation and natural light, without a bed for rest and adequate sanitary conditions, in isolation or with undue restrictions upon the visiting schedule, constitute a violation of the right to humane treatment. 37

97. In addressing the issue of prison conditions, the Court has taken note of other international instruments, as well as the case law of other international human rights institutions. Recently, the Court has held that the State is placed in a special position of guarantor in relation to persons deprived of their freedom, since penitentiary authorities have full control over the persons subjected to their custody.38 In this very particular context of subordination between the detainee and the State, the latter has a special responsibility to ensure to those persons under its control conditions that permit them to retain a degree of dignity consistent with their inherent and non-derogable human rights.39

98. In the Case of Hilaire, Constantine and Benjamin et al., the Court found that the conditions of detention in several Trinidad and Tobago prisons were characterized by serious overcrowding, inadequate sanitation and poor hygiene and medical care. The Court concluded that the conditions in which the victims of that case were incarcerated were “in fact indicative of the general conditions in Trinidad and Tobago’s prison system”, compelling the victims “to live under circumstances that impinge on their physical and psychological integrity and therefore constitute cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment”.40

99. As set out in the proven facts of this judgment, during his detention Mr. Caesar has been held along with other prisoners in small and poorly ventilated cells,
equipped with a slop pail instead of a toilet, and has been obliged to sleep on the floor. Since his incarceration, Mr. Caesar has also suffered from serious health
problems. Although examined by medical personnel on several occasions, Mr. Caesar’s medical treatment has nonetheless been inadequate and his health
conditions have deteriorated with the passage of time (supra paras. 49(16) and 49(18)).

100. The Court finds that the conditions of detention to which Mr. Caesar has been subjected have failed to respect his physical, mental, and moral integrity as required under Article 5(1) of the Convention, and constitute inhuman and degrading treatment contrary to Article 5(2) of the Convention, which enshrines provisions of jus cogens. Therefore, the Court holds that the State is also responsible for the violation of these provisions, in conjunction with Article 1(1) of the Convention, to the detriment of Mr. Winston Caesar.

IX ARTICLES 8 AND 25 OF THE AMERICAN CONVENTION IN CONJUNCTION WITH ARTICLES 1(1) AND 2 OF THE CONVENTION
(RIGHT TO A FAIR TRIAL AND JUDICIAL PROTECTION)
Arguments of the Commission

101. The Inter-American Commision, with reference to Articles 8 and 25 of the American Convention, stated that:


a) the State is responsible for violating Mr. Caesar’s right to be tried within a reasonable time, under Article 8.1 of the Convention, because of the delay in his criminal proceeding;
b) Mr. Caesar suffered a total delay of 15 years between his initial arrest on November 11, 1983 and November 9, 1998, when the counsel informed Mr.
Caesar's lawyers that his attempt to pursue a final appeal before the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council was unlikely to succeed. This period represents an unreasonable delay that far exceeds the delay in previous cases in which the Court has found violations of Article 8.1 of the Convention. The State has not provided any explanation for this delay, nor do any facts appear from the record that might account for such delay;
c) Section 6 of Trinidad and Tobago’s Constitution precludes any appeal against the constitutionality of the Corporal Punishment Act;
d) the State is responsible for violating Mr. Caesar’s right to judicial protection under Article 25 of the Convention, as well as its obligations under Article 2 of
the Convention, in connection with Articles 7(5) and 8(1) of the Convention, by failing to guarantee, under its domestic law, the right to be tried within a reasonable time;
e) the Constitution of Trinidad and Tobago does not include among its prescribed fundamental rights and freedoms the right to a trial within a reasonable time,
fact that has been confirmed by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council; and
f) although Mr. Caesar was released by the State prior to his trial and therefore did not need to invoke Article 7(5) of the Convention, the evidence indicates
that the State’s failure to provide for the right to be tried within a reasonable time under Article 8(1) also necessarily implies, as a general proposition, failure to protect the corresponding right under Article 7(5) of the Convention.

Arguments of the representatives

102. The representatives of the alleged victim, with respect to Articles 8 and 25 of the American Convention, stated that:
a) the State violated Article 8 of the Convention by failing to provide Mr. Caesar with a trial and appeal proceedings within a reasonable time;
b) the State violated Article 25 of the Convention, as it failed to provide Mr. Caesar with a means of effective domestic recourse;
c) Mr. Caesar was subjected to a total delay of 12 years between his initial arrest and his attempt to pursue an appeal before the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council;
d) both the sentence itself and the manner in which it was carried out are inconsistent with and violate the right enshrined under Section 4(a) and Section 5(2)(b) of Trinidad and Tobago’s Constitution. However, the violations of the rights enshrined in said Sections, are not capable of remedy in domestic courts because of the “savings clause” in Section 6(1) of the Constitution. Nevertheless, States cannot evade their obligations under human rights treaties by reliance upon “savings clauses” that have the effect of undermining or defeating domestic implementation of those obligations; and
e) The State violated Article 2 of the Convention by failing to give domestic legal effect to the rights protected under Article 8 of the Convention.

The Court’s assesment

103. Article 8(1) of the American Convention provides for the right to a fair trial as follows:
Every person has the right to a hearing, with due guarantees and within a reasonable time, by a competent, independent, and impartial tribunal, previously established by law, in the substantiation of any accusation of a criminal nature made against him or for the determination of his rights and obligations of a civil, labor, fiscal, or any other nature.

104. Article 25(1) of the American Convention guarantees the right to judicial protection as follows:
Everyone has the right to simple and prompt recourse, or any other effective recourse, to a competent court or tribunal for protection against acts that violate his fundamental rights recognized by the constitution or laws of the state concerned or by this Convention, even though such violation may have been committed by persons acting in the course of their official duties.

105. There are two issues that the Court must address regarding the alleged violations of Articles 8(1) and 25, all in connection with Articles 1(1) and 2, of the
American Convention:
a) the reasonableness of the length of the criminal proceedings; and
b) whether the domestic law of the State provides an effective remedy against either the existence or the application of corporal punishment.
*
106. The Court notes that, after the judgment delivered by the Court of Appeal of Trinidad and Tobago on February 28, 1996, Mr. Caesar still had the possibility to apply for leave to appeal to the Privy Council. The Court cannot share the Commission’s view that Mr. Caesar was subjected to a total delay of fifteen years in
the proceedings, to be calculated between his initial arrest in 1983 and his “attempt to pursue an appeal before the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in 1998”. That “attempt” consisted in a legal opinion rendered in November 1998 by counsel in London, at the request of Mr. Caesar’s lawyers, and therefore cannot be equated to a procedural step in a judicial process. The length of the proceedings must be calculated, therefore, on the basis that the final judgment in the case was reached with the decision of the Court of Appeal of Trinidad and Tobago on February 28, 1996.

107. Although neither the Commission nor the representatives raised the issue of the Court´s ratione temporis jurisdiction, it is incumbent on the Tribunal to consider this question in the context of the actual duration of the criminal proceedings in order to come to a conclusion as to the reasonableness of the time elapsed, for the purpose of deciding whether there was a violation of the rights enshrined in Article 8(1) of the Convention.

108. On this point, the Court has held as follows:
When codifying general law on this issue, Article 28 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties establishes that:

Unless a different intention appears from the treaty or is otherwise established, its provisions do not bind a party in relation to any act or fact which took place
or any situation which ceased to exist before the date of the entry into force of the treaty with respect to that party.41

109. In cases where the Court decided that it had no ratione temporis jurisdiction to decide upon certain facts, it has made it clear that this situation does not imply a judgment about the existence of those facts.42

110. In cases where the applicant alleged the violation of Articles 5(3) or 6(1) of the European Convention on Fundamental Rights and Freedoms, the European Court of Human Rights has restricted its considerations to the time period that falls into its ratione temporis jurisdiction, starting from the date on which the State recognized the right of individual petition or ratified the Convention. It is significant, however, that the European Court nevertheless takes into account the amount of time that has elapsed before this effective date – in cases of detention or in a legal proceeding, for example – in its assessment of rights violations.43

111. The Court notes that the criminal proceedings lasted for more than 12 years, if calculated from the first arrest of Mr. Caesar on November 11, 1983, as the
Commission and the representatives have done. However, as Trinidad and Tobago’s recognition of the Court’s compulsory jurisdiction took effect on May 28, 1991, the Court can only consider the period between the date of that recognition and the decision of the Court of Appeal on February 28, 1996, the final judgment delivered in the criminal proceedings. Mr. Caesar was convicted on January 10, 1992 by the High Court of Trinidad and Tobago. His lawyers waited for almost two years to request leave to appeal and, on February 28, 1996, the Court of Appeal dismissed the appeal and confirmed the sentence. Therefore, the Court finds that the duration of the criminal proceedings between May 28, 1991, and February 28, 1996 – discounting the period of almost two years before that leave to appeal was sought – does not constitute a delay that can be considered unreasonable, in the terms of Article 8(1) of the Convention.

112. For the aforementioned reasons, the Court considers that the State is not responsible for a violation of Article 8(1) of the Convention.
*
113. The Court must now turn to examine whether the domestic law of the State provides an effective remedy against either the existence or the application of
corporal punishment.

114. In the instant case, domestic judges were authorized to sentence Mr. Caesar to flogging with the “cat-o-nine-tails” under the laws of Trinidad and Tobago –
specifically, the Corporal Punishment Act.

115. It is important to note that, even if Mr. Caesar had been able to appeal to the Privy Council, such an appeal would have been most unlikely to succeed. In this regard the expert witness Desmond Allum commented that: [o]ne of the fundamental reasons why there has been no substantial challenge to the legality of a sentence of corporal punishment is the “savings clause”. This clause effectively ensured that it was not open to [domestic] courts to impugn the constitutionality of a sentence of corporal punishment as this [clause] predated the coming into force of the 1976 Constitution, and accordingly, was “saved” into [Trinidad and Tobago’s] law as good law. In the recent case of Matthew v The State of Trinidad and Tobago, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council considered the “savings clause” in the context of the death penalty. The majority of the Board of the Privy Council held that the mandatory death penalty is a cruel and unusual punishment, and is therefore inconsistent with Sections 4(a) and 5(2)(b) of the Constitution. However, a majority of the Board held that the legislation imposing the mandatory death penalty was passed prior to the Constitution, and, because of the “savings clause” in Section 6, it could not be invalidated by reference to the fundamental rights for which Sections 4 and 5 of the Constitution provide. Accordingly, the majority upheld the validity of the mandatory death penalty.44

116. Similarly, in a 2002 judgment with regard to a case in the Bahamas, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council observed that “[…] it is accepted that flogging is an inhuman and degrading punishment and, unless protected from constitutional challenge under some other provision of the Constitution, is rendered
unconstitutional by [the provision of the Constitution prohibiting torture and inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment]”.45 Nevertheless, on the basis of the
“savings clause” in the Constitution of the Bahamas, the Privy Council upheld the constitutionality of the legislation authorising corporal punishment.

117. It follows from the above that the State did not provide the alleged victim with an effective remedy to challenge the application of the aforementioned corporal punishment. Therefore, the Court considers that Trinidad and Tobago is responsible for the violation of Article 25, in relation to Articles 1(1) and 2, of the Convention, to the detriment of Mr. Caesar.

X REPARATIONS
(Application of Article 63(1) of the American Convention)
Arguments of the Commission
118. The Commission argued that:

a) the State must pay the reasonable and justified material and moral damages related to the violations suffered by Mr. Caesar;
b) Mr. Caesar is entitled to receive a sum of compensation sufficient to reflect the fundamental and serious nature of the violations committed against him, both to provide adequate reparation as well as to deter
similar violations in the future;
c) it has no objection to the submission by the representatives of Mr. Caesar regarding Mr. Caesar's early release from prison, due to the circumstances of the present case; and
d) measures to ensure non-repetition of the violations suffered by Mr. Caesar are crucial to a just and effective resolution of the matter before the Court. In particular, the State must be compelled to adopt such legislative or other measures as may be necessary to:
i. give effect to the right to a trial within a reasonable time under Articles 7(5) and 8(1) of the Convention;
ii. abrogate or otherwise prohibit the punishment of flogging as provided for under its Corporal Punishment Act;
iii. ensure that conditions of detention in state prisons, including those of Mr. Caesar, comply with the standards of humane treatment mandated by Article 5 of the Convention; and
iv. abrogate the “savings clause” under Section 6 of Trinidad and Tobago's Constitution, insofar as that provision denies persons effective recourse to a competent court or tribunal for protection against acts that violate their fundamental rights recognized by Trinidad and Tobago's Constitution.

Arguments of the Representatives

119. The representatives claimed no sum of compensation for Mr. Caesar, considering that monetary compensation, which might normally be an appropriate
remedy, would be of limited use to him in his present situation in a maximum security prison. The representatives maintained that in cases where a violation has
taken place and cannot be undone, mitigation of penalty is a suitable remedy for a victim who remains in custody serving a sentence. Therefore, an appropriate remedy for the violation of Mr. Caesar's rights would be his immediate release from his sentence and that the remainder of that sentence be remitted. Moreover, as a consequence of having violated Article 2 of the Convention, the State is obliged to take the necessary measures to ensure consistency between its law and the
protections under the American Convention. Finally, the representatives claimed no costs or expenses before the Court, as they are acting pro bono.

The Court’s assessments

120. In accordance with the analysis set forth in previous chapters, the Court declared, based on the facts of the case, violations of Article 5(1) and 5(2) in
conjunction with Article 1(1) of the American Convention, Article 2, in relation to Article 5(1) and 5(2) of the Convention, and Article 25 in conjunction with Articles 1(1) and 2 of said instrument. The Court has held, on a number of occasions, that any violation of an international obligation resulting in harm carries with it an obligation to provide adequate reparations.46 Article 63(1) of the American Convention states that: [i]f the Court finds that there has been a violation of a right or freedom protected by this Convention, the Court shall rule that the injured party be ensured the enjoyment of his right or freedom that was violated. It shall also rule, if appropriate, that the consequences of the measure or situation that constituted the breach of such right or freedom be remedied and that fair compensation be paid to the injured party (emphasis added).

121. This provision constitutes a rule of customary law that enshrines one of the fundamental principles of contemporary international law on state responsibility.
Thus, when an illicit act is imputed to the state, there immediately arises a responsibility on the part of that state for the breach of the international norm involved, together with the subsequent duty to make reparations and put an end to the consequences of said violation.47

122. The reparation of harm caused by a violation of an international obligation requires, whenever possible, full restitution (restitutio in integrum), which consists in
restoring the situation that existed before the violation occurred. When this is not possible, as in the present case, it is the task of this Tribunal to order the adoption of a series of measures that, in addition to guaranteeing respect for the rights violated, will ensure that the damage resulting from the infractions is repaired, by way, inter alia, of payment of an indemnity as compensation for the harm caused.48 The obligation to make reparations, which is regulated in all its aspects (scope, nature, modalities, and designation of beneficiaries) by international law, cannot be altered or eluded by the State´s invocation of provisions of its domestic law.49

123. Reparations, as the term indicates, consist in those measures necessary to make the effects of the committed violations disappear. The nature and amount of
the reparations depend on the harm caused at both the material and moral levels. Reparations cannot, in any case, entail either the enrichment or the impoverishment of the victim or his or her family.50

124. In light of the abovementioned criteria, the Court will proceed to analyze the submissions of the Commission and the representatives regarding reparations, in
order to determine the pertinent remedial measures to be adopted in the instant case.
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A) MORAL DAMAGES

125. Moral damage may include suffering and affliction caused to the direct victims and their next of kin, detriment to very significant personal values, as well as nonpecuniary alterations in the conditions of existence of a victim or his or her family. Since it is not possible to assign a precise monetary equivalent to non-pecuniary damage, for purposes of comprehensive reparation to victims, the Court must turn to other alternatives: first, payment of an amount of money or delivery of goods or services that can be estimated in monetary terms, which the Court will establish through reasonable application of judicial discretion and equity; and second, acts or works which are public in their scope or effects, commitment to efforts seeking to avoid the repetition of violations, as well as recognition of the victim's dignity.51

126. It is well settled in international jurisprudence that a judgment constitutes, per se, a form of reparation. However, considering the circumstances of the present
case and its non-pecuniary consequences, the Court deems it appropriate that the moral damages must also be repaired, on grounds of equity, through the payment of compensation.52

127. In order to determine compensation for the moral damage suffered by the victim, the Court has taken into account the aggravating circumstances of his
corporal punishment with the “cat-o-nine tails”, namely the anguish, deep fear and humiliation suffered by Mr. Caesar prior to and during the flogging. Moreover, the Court notes that the delay in executing the sentence increased his anguish while he was waiting to be punished. As a result of the corporal punishment, Mr. Caesar continues to experience pain in his shoulders and he has also suffered, inter alia, from symptoms of depression, fear, and anxiety of a severity sufficient to allow the expert witness Robert Ferris to diagnose, at a minimum, an adjustment disorder. And finally, since his incarceration, the victim has suffered from serious health problems that have not been properly treated by state authorities (supra paras. 49(18), 49(19), 49(21), 49(31), 49(32) and 89).

128. Taking all of the elements of the present case into account, the Court sees fit, on grounds of equity, to direct Trinidad and Tobago to grant an indemnity of US $ 50.000,00 (fifty thousand United States of America dollars) to Mr. Winston Caesar for moral damages. The Court notes here that no specific arguments or requests regarding Mr. Caesar's next-of-kin were submitted.

B) OTHER FORMS OF REPARATION
(SATISFACTION MEASURES AND NON-REPETITION GUARANTEES)

129. In this chapter, the Court will determine the satisfaction measures to repair non-pecuniary damages; such measures seek to impact the public sphere.53

130. The Court declared that the imposition of corporal punishment by flogging is in absolute contravention to the Convention. The aberrant character of such
punishment has led the Court to conclude that Mr. Caesar was subjected to torture, as well as to other inhuman and degrading treatment due to the conditions of his detention (supra paras. 70, 73 and 100).

131. Furthermore, having examined the body of evidence submitted in the instant case, it is clear that Mr. Caesar’s physical and psychological problems persist and have not been properly treated (supra para. 49(32)). Consequently, as it has on other occasions,54 the Court directs the State to provide Mr. Caesar, with effect from the date of notification of this judgment, through its national health services, free of charge and for such period as may be necessary, such medical and psychological care and medication as may be recommended by appropriately qualified specialists.

132. Having found that the Corporal Punishment Act is incompatible with the terms of Article 5(1) and 5(2) of the Convention (supra paras. 73 and 94), the Court directs the State to adopt, within a reasonable time, such legislative or other measures as may be necessary to abrogate the Corporal Punishment Act.

133. The Court has held that “Section 6 of the Constitution of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago of 1976 establishes that no law in effect prior to the date the
Constitution entered into force may be the object of constitutional challenge under Sections 4 and 5 […]. The Mandatory Death Penalty Act was declared incompatible with the American Convention and thus any provision that establishes that Act’s immunity from challenge is likewise incompatible, by virtue of the fact that Trinidad and Tobago, as a Party to the Convention at the time that the acts took place, cannot invoke provisions of its domestic law as justification for failure to comply with its international obligations”.55 Similarly, inasmuch as it immunises the Corporal Punishment Act from challenge, the “savings clause” under Section 6 of Trinidad and Tobago's Constitution is incompatible with the Convention. Therefore, the Court orders the State to amend, within a reasonable time, Section 6 of Trinidad and Tobago's Constitution insofar as that provision denies persons effective recourse to a competent court or tribunal for remedy against violations of their human rights.

134. The Commission and the representatives also argued that the State’s penitentiary system permits prisoners to be detained in conditions that fail to respect
their rights to physical and mental integrity and to humane treatment. In this regard, the Court has also found that the prison conditions to which Mr. Caesar has been subjected are contrary to Article 5(2) of the Convention and are representative of Trinidad and Tobago’s prison system (supra para. 49(22) and 100). Therefore, the Court deems it necessary to order the State, as it did in the Case of Hilaire, Constantine, Benjamin et al.56, and as a guarantee of non-repetition, to adopt, within a reasonable time, all necessary measures to bring the conditions of its prisons into compliance with the relevant international human rights norms.

C) COSTS AND FEES

135. Since the representatives claimed no costs or expenses before the Court, as they are acting pro bono, and the Commission did not submit any observations on this point, the Court makes no award with regard to costs and expenses in the present case.

XI MEANS OF COMPLIANCE

136. The State is directed to pay the compensation ordered (supra para. 128) within one year of the notification of this judgment and to adopt the other measures
of reparation ordered in accordance with the provisions of paragraphs 131 to 134 of this judgment.

137. The payment of the compensation ordered in favor of the victim shall be made directly to him. If he has died, the payment shall be made to his heirs.

138. The State may comply with its obligations by payment in United States dollars or the equivalent amount in national currency, using the rate of exchange between the two currencies in force on the market in New York, United States of America, the day before payment, in order to make the respective calculation.

139. If, due to causes that can be attributed to the beneficiary of the compensation, he is unable to claim such compensation within the said period of one
year, the State shall deposit such amount in his favour in an account or a deposit certificate in a reputable national banking institution, in United States dollars or the
equivalent in Trinidad and Tobago currency and in the most favourable financial conditions allowed by legislation and banking practice. If, after ten years, the
compensation has not been claimed, the sum shall be returned to the State, with the interest earned.

140. The payment ordered in this judgment as compensation for moral damages may not be affected, reduced or conditioned by any current or future taxes or
charges. Consequently, it shall be paid in full to the victim in accodance with the present judgment.

141. If the State falls in arrears, it shall pay interest on the amount owed, corresponding to bank interest on arrears in Trinidad and Tobago.

142. In accordance with its consistent practice, the Court retains the authority, inherent in its competence, to monitor compliance with this judgment. The instant
case shall be closed when the State has fully implemented all of the provisions of this judgment. Within one year of notification of this judgment, the State shall provide the Court with a first report on the measures taken in compliance.

XII OPERATIVE PARAGRAPHS

143. Therefore,

THE COURT,

DECLARES,

Unanimously, that:

1. The State violated the right enshrined in Article 5(1) and 5(2) in conjunction with Article 1(1) of the American Convention on Human Rights, to the detriment of
Mr. Winston Caesar, in the terms of paragraphs 70, 73, 89 and 100 of this judgment.

2. The State breached its obligations established in Article 2 of the American Convention on Human Rights, in relation to Article 5(1) and 5(2) of the Convention,
to the detriment of Mr. Winston Caesar, in the terms of paragraph 94 of this judgment.

3. The State did not violate the right enshrined in Article 8(1) of the American Convention on Human Rights, for the reasons set forth in paragraphs 106 to 112 of
this judgment.

4. The State violated the right enshrined in Article 25 in conjunction with Articles 1(1) and 2 of the American Convention on Human Rights, to the detriment of Mr. Winston Caesar, in the terms of paragraphs 113 to 117 of this judgment.

5. This judgment constitutes, per se, a form of reparation, in the terms of paragraph 126 of this judgment.

AND DECIDES,

Unanimously, that:

1. The State shall pay the compensation ordered in paragraph 128 of this judgment to Winston Caesar for moral damages.

2. The State shall, with effect from the date of notification of this judgment, provide Mr. Winston Caesar, through its national health services, free of charge and
for such period as may be necessary, such medical and psychological care and medication as may be recommended by appropriately qualified specialists, in the
terms of paragraph 131 of this judgment.

3. The State shall adopt, within a reasonable time, such legislative or other measures as may be necessary to abrogate the Corporal Punishment Act (Offenders
Over Eighteen), in the terms of paragraph 132 of this judgment.

4. The State shall amend, within a reasonable time, Section 6 of Trinidad and Tobago's Constitution, in the terms of paragraph 133 of this judgment.

5. The State shall adopt, within a reasonable time, such measures as may be necessary to bring the conditions of detention in its prisons into compliance with the
relevant international human rights norms, in the terms of paragraph 134 of this judgment.

6. The State shall pay the compensation ordered in favor of Mr. Winston Caesar directly to him within one year of the notification of this judgment, in the terms of
paragraph 128 of this judgment.

7. The State may comply with the pecuniary dispositions in this judgment by payment in United States dollars or the equivalent amount in national currency,
using the rate of exchange between the two currencies in force on the market in New York, United States of America, on the day preceding the day of payment.

8. If, for reasons attributable to the recipient of the compensation herein ordered, he is unable to claim such compensation within the stipulated period of one
year, the State shall deposit such amount in his favour in an account or a deposit certificate in a reputable national banking institution, in the terms of paragraph 139
of this judgment.

9. The payment for moral damages ordered in this judgment shall not be subject to or affected or reduced by any existing or future taxes or charges, in the terms of paragraph 140 of this judgment.

10. If the State falls into arrears in the payments ordered, it shall pay interest on the amount owed at the going bank rate in Trinidad and Tobago.

11. It shall monitor compliance with this judgment and shall close the instant case when the State has fully implemented all of its provisions. Within one year of
the notification of this judgment, the State shall provide the Court with a report on the measures taken in compliance, in the terms of paragraph 142 of this judgment. Judges García-Ramírez, Jackman, Cançado-Trindade and Ventura-Robles advised the Court of their Concurring Opinions, which accompany this judgment.

Drafted in San José, Costa Rica, on March 11, 2005, in English and Spanish, both
texts being authentic.

VOTO CONCURRENTE DEL JUEZ SERGIO GARCÍA RAMÍREZ A LA SENTENCIA DE LA CORTE INTERAMERICANA DE DERECHOS HUMANOS EN EL CASO CAESAR VS. TRINIDAD Y TOBAGO
(11 DE MARZO DE 2005)

1. La sentencia de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos a la que agrego este Voto razonado, emitida el 11 de marzo de 2005 en el proceso sobre el
Caso Caesar vs. Trinidad y Tobago, suscita diversas cuestiones vinculadas con temas relevantes. Entre aquéllas figuran: extensión y vigencia de los deberes asumidos por el Estado parte en un convenio internacional; legitimidad de ciertas penas a la luz de las normas nacionales e internacionales acerca de la tortura y otros tratos crueles, inhumanos o degradantes; algunos extremos del debido proceso legal, señaladamente la observancia del “plazo razonable”; condiciones de detención de individuos procesados o sentenciados; y proporcionalidad entre el delito cometido y la sanción prevista en la ley y aplicada por el tribunal.

2. Todos esos temas, con la salvedad del mencionado en último término, fueron abarcados por la Corte Interamericana en la consideración del presente caso y en los puntos resolutivos de la sentencia respectiva. Por supuesto, también fue examinada la competencia del Tribunal para conocer este asunto, no obstante la denuncia de la Convención Americana por el Estado, que no compareció en el proceso, y la posible argumentación adversa a la competencia de la Corte Interamericana en función de la reserva –o limitación en el reconocimiento de la competencia-- formulada por aquél al tiempo de ratificar la Convención.

I. COMPETENCIA DE LA CORTE

3. En lo que concierne a la denuncia, conviene tomar en cuenta que los hechos sub judice ocurrieron cuando el Estado era parte en la Convención Americana. Por lo tanto quedan sujetos a la competencia ratione temporis de la Corte. Aun cuando el Estado no concurrió al juicio, la Corte impulsó de oficio el procedimiento. La normativa vigente confiere al Tribunal esta potestad, que constituye, al mismo tiempo, una obligación del órgano jurisdiccional.

4. Por lo que atañe a la restricción en el reconocimiento de la competencia ratione materiae, conviene considerar el criterio sustentado anteriormente por la
Corte a este respecto en los Casos Hilaire, Constantine y Benjamín y otros (Trinidad y Tobago). Excepciones preliminares. Sentencias del 1º de septiembre de 2001). En esa oportunidad se desestimó la restricción establecida por el Estado cuando ratificó la Convención y aceptó la competencia contenciosa del Tribunal interamericano. El rechazo obedeció a que la restricción fue formulada en términos a tal punto generales que afectan el objeto y fin del tratado e implican el condicionamiento total de la jurisdicción internacional por los órganos de justicia interna. Si se tuviera en pie una restricción de este carácter sería imposible conocer el alcance de la jurisdicción internacional, cuya actividad se vería sujeta a valoración y admisión de los órganos internos, caso por caso.

5. En el Voto razonado que acompañé a la citada sentencia del 1º de septiembre de 2001 señalé lo que a continuación transcribo y hoy reitero: “coincido con los Jueces que integran la Corte en el señalamiento de que la reserva o declaración formulada por Trinidad y Tobago en el instrumento de ratificación de la Convención (del 3 de abril de 1991, depositado el 28 de mayo del mismo año), a propósito de la jurisdicción contenciosa de la Corte Interamericana, tendría el efecto de excluir al Estado del sistema jurisdiccional que en ese mismo instrumento declara aceptar, en cuanto contiene una condición de carácter general que subordina el ejercicio de la jurisdicción, en forma prácticamente absoluta, a las disposiciones del Derecho interno. En efecto, dicha declaración admite la mencionada jurisdicción contenciosa - -pieza clave en la efectiva vigencia del sistema interamericano de derechos humanos-- ‘sólo en la medida en que (su ejercicio) sea compatible con las secciones pertinentes de la Constitución de la República de Trinidad y Tobago’. “Como es fácil advertir, la fórmula utilizada por el Estado no precisa --a diferencia de lo que suele ocurrir en otras declaraciones de la misma naturaleza-- cuáles son, específicamente, los puntos sustraídos al conocimiento y a la resolución de la Corte, que necesariamente aplica la Convención Americana, no las disposiciones del Derecho interno de un Estado. Así las cosas, ese tribunal internacional estaría privado de la posibilidad de ejercer con independencia las atribuciones que le asigna la Convención y debería sujetarse a una modalidad de cotejo casuístico entre las normas de ésta y las del Derecho interno, que a su vez se hallaría sometido a la interpretación de los tribunales nacionales. “Evidentemente, semejante limitación --establecida, como se ha dicho, en forma general e indeterminada--, no es consecuente con el objeto y fin de la convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos, ni corresponde a la naturaleza de la jurisdicción interamericana llamada a tutelar esos derechos. “Por otra parte, la fórmula que se analiza incluye igualmente algunas expresiones de muy difícil comprensión, que resultan equívocas para el intérprete --y que podrían obstruir íntegramente el quehacer jurisdiccional de la Corte--, como la de que se reconoce la jurisdicción obligatoria del tribunal internacional ‘siempre que una sentencia de (éste) no contravenga, establezca o anule derechos o deberes existentes de ciudadanos particulares¡. Es posible citar algunos ejemplos sobre las implicaciones que podría tener esta expresión oscura. Evidentemente, una sentencia de la Corte podría incidir sobre supuestos ‘deberes de los individuos’ derivados de actos o medidas que el tribunal considere violatorios de la Convención. Las resoluciones del tribunal interamericano también repercutirían sobre ‘derechos de los particulares’ si reconocieran a favor de éstos ciertas consecuencias jurídicas con motivo de las violaciones cometidas: así, el derecho a reparaciones. Por otra parte, no está claro lo que se quiere decir al señalar que las sentencias de la Corte no podrían establecer ‘derechos o deberes existentes’ de ciudadanos particulares. “En suma, por todo lo expuesto en los párrafos precedentes --en los que se proyecta el criterio que funda las sentencias de la Corte en los casos a los que se refiere este Voto-- no es posible reconocer eficacia a la declaración formulada por el Estado en el instrumento de ratificación del 28 de mayo de 1991, y sustentar en ella la excepción preliminar que se invoca”.

6. Me parece pertinente subrayar que esta desestimación por parte de la Corte de una restricción establecida por un Estado no implica, en modo alguno, que el
Tribunal ignore o soslaye cualquier limitación que aquél pudiera fijar. La Corte, instrumento de seguridad y justicia, debe preservar cuidadosamente ambos valores jurídicos. Si impusiera al Estado una competencia que éste ha excluido específicamente, estaría afectando, por lo menos, el principio de seguridad jurídica.
La Convención Americana y el desempeño del Tribunal instituido por aquélla se mantienen atentos a las decisiones legítimas de los Estados en el marco de las
reservas y restricciones admisibles.

7. El respeto a esta circunstancia --que tampoco implica, por otra parte, negar que pudo haber violaciones a derechos humanos, independientemente de que la
Corte se abstenga de pronunciarse sobre ellas-- se ha visto en las decisiones del Tribunal que debieron ponderar los efectos de una reserva o una restricción. El
ejemplo más reciente del cumplimiento por la Corte de su deber en este campo aparece en la decisión dictada en el Caso Serrano Cruz. La situación que se analiza ahora no es igual a la existente en ese caso. De ahí las diferentes determinaciones adoptadas. En una hipótesis se restringe la competencia en términos admisibles, aunque quizás no deseables; en la otra, se condiciona totalmente.

8. Constituye motivo de la más viva preocupación desde la perspectiva de la eficacia del sistema interamericano de protección de los derechos humanos la
negativa de un Estado a asumir plenamente los compromisos contraídos, de los que deriva la responsabilidad internacional que declara el Tribunal interamericano. Es posible que un Estado se abstenga de suscribir o de ratificar un tratado; lo es que incorpore al reconocimiento de la jurisdicción contenciosa los límites que
expresamente autoriza la Convención; y lo es, finalmente, que denuncie ésta. Pero resulta por lo menos inexplicable que habiendo concurrido al Pacto resuelva
posteriormente desatender las obligaciones que derivan de éste o sujetarlas a condiciones o modalidades no previstas por el tratado.

9. Es muy deseable que una profunda reflexión sobre estos problemas y acerca de la necesidad de fortalecer el sistema protector de los derechos humanos,
conduzca a una reconsideración que contribuya a lograr los altos objetivos que proclaman la Carta de la Organización de los Estados Americanos, la Declaración
Americana y el Pacto de San José, conforme a las decisiones adoptadas por los propios Estados que integran la comunidad interamericana.

II. PENA DE AZOTES

10. Probablemente el asunto más llamativo en cuanto al fondo de este caso es la persistencia y aplicación --prevista en la legislación del Estado-- de la pena corporal de azotes, ejecutada con el llamado “gato de las nueve colas”. Las características de este instrumento quedan descritas en la sentencia conforme a las pruebas reunidas en el expediente. No hay duda de que su empleo causa muy graves sufrimientos a quien recibe el castigo. La posición de la Corte a este respecto, expresada en la sentencia, es de terminante y absoluto rechazo. Para ello, el Tribunal ha tomado en cuenta una corriente razonada y dominante en el orden nacional e internacional, que repudia el empleo de métodos punitivos que tienen características e infligen al condenado sufrimientos incompatibles con su dignidad humana, por una parte, y con los fines generalmente reconocidos a la pena que se aplica a los responsables de los delitos, por la otra.

11. Con ello, el condenado deviene víctima de la función penal del Estado, desviada de su cauce y objetivo. No se cuestiona, por supuesto, la necesidad --y el
deber público-- de enfrentar con firmeza la delincuencia y sancionar a quienes perpetran delitos. Lo que se rechaza es que esta función punitiva, en sí misma
legítima, se despliegue en una forma y con unos métodos que lesionan la dignidad humana y pugnan con la condición ética que debe caracterizar al Estado democrático en el cumplimiento de todas sus atribuciones, incluso la de carácter punitivo. Como otras veces he dicho, en el orden punitivo quedan de manifiesto, acaso más que en otros, la convicción política y el designio moral del Estado.

12. Lo anterior es independiente, por supuesto, de que el individuo afectado sea, a su vez, victimario en la comisión del delito que se procura sancionar. Si se
establece su responsabilidad penal, debe ser sancionado. Parece innecesario decir -- pero quizás sea preciso insistir una vez más-- que en el proceso por violación a derechos humanos se juzga única y exclusivamente la comisión de violaciones de esta naturaleza, no así la participación delictuosa del sujeto, que debe ser comprobada conforme a la legislación nacional y por los tribunales locales competentes, y sancionada en forma legítima, esto es, compatible con las
estipulaciones de la Constitución doméstica y con las disposiciones internacioales acogidas por el Estado, a través de la vía convencional, o imperativas en el marco del jus cogens. De nueva cuenta conviene afirmar que los objetivos legítimos deben ser alcanzados por medios igualmente legítimos.

13. La subsistencia de medidas como la flagelación de una persona pone de manifiesto nuevamente, en pleno siglo XXI, la existencia de capítulos paralelos en
las historias del crimen y de la justicia erigida para enfrentarlo en nombre de la sociedad y del Estado. Se trata, por supuesto, de un extraño y deplorable
paralelismo, cuya crónica excede los límites del Voto razonado que acompaña una sentencia. No siempre ha existido entre el delito y la justicia penal la frontera
evidente y rigurosa que debe mediar entre el injusto empleo de la violencia que despliega el criminal y la función penal que desempeña el Estado. Esta debiera
justificarse, como mencioné, por la calidad ética de su fundamento, sus medios y sus objetivos. La “justicia” penal ha traspuesto ese lindero con frecuencia. En este orden, la Corte Interamericana ha hecho suya la elocuente reflexión de la Corte Europea en el Caso Tyrer v. United Kingdom, a propósito de la sanción corporal: ésta es simple violencia institucionalizada, un “asalto” contra la dignidad personal y la integridad física. De ahí que contravenga el jus cogens y resulte, por lo mismo, totalmente inaceptable. El rechazo es absoluto, por encima de los motivos históricos, sociológicos o penales con que se pretenda sostener esa sanción.

14. La obstinada presencia de estos métodos de castigo, que constituyen reminiscencias de antiguas prácticas opresivas, conduce a replantear los fines de la
pena que el Estado impone al responsable de un delito. No niego el carácter retributivo que formalmente posee la sanción penal y que en ocasiones ha
contribuido a limitar el despliegue de la violencia, ajustando la gravedad de la pena a la gravedad de la falta. Tampoco impugno en este momento su eficacia --más supuesta que real-- como medio de prevenir (prevención general) la comisión de delitos. Pero conviene retener por ahora, en ausencia de mejor opción garantista, el proyecto de readaptación, resocialización o rehabilitación que se ha asignado a la consecuencia penal del delito y que figura, extensamente, en numerosos instrumentos nacionales e internacionales, particularmente aquellos que conciernen a la pena privativa de libertad, que en la historia de las sanciones acudió a relevar la sanción capital y las penas corporales.

15. Ciertamente, se han expuesto críticas relevantes sobre este proyecto asociado a la pena. Se trata, a menudo, de observaciones razonables que es posible compartir. Sin embargo, aún carecemos --en términos reales, efectivos, no sólo ideales o conceptuales-- de sustitutos que lo releven de inmediato, con ventaja
y eficacia. Tras la decadencia de la concepción readaptadora de la pena aguardan las opciones eliminativas y aflictivas, de las que son ejemplos la sanción capital y las penas corporales --como la mutilación, la marca o los azotes--, respectivamente. De ahí que la readaptación siga constituyendo, a pesar de sus debilidades y
contradicciones, un límite razonable al poder penal absoluto del Estado, que de otra suerte se desbordaría.

16. El designio readaptador se localiza en el artículo 6.5 de la Convención Americana, que atribuye a las penas privativas de libertad la “finalidad esencial” de
promover “la reforma y la readaptación social de los condenados”. Si este es el objetivo de aquellas penas --su misión finalista, que da sentido a la actuación
“positiva” del Estado con respecto a los condenados--, el límite para esa acción -- frontera insalvable para la autoridad-- se halla en la preservación de la dignidad humana. Es así que “toda persona privada de libertad será tratada con el respeto debido a la dignidad inherente al ser humano” (artículo 5.2 de la misma
Convención).

17. Es verdad que estas disposiciones se asocian a la privación de la libertad, pero también lo es que las ideas en las que aquéllas se informan permean el sistema
de las penas en su conjunto, sin perjuicio de otros objetivos vinculados con ese conjunto --como la satisfacción de los derechos e intereses del ofendido-- o con
algunas penas y medidas específicamente. No es posible suponer, ni remotamente, que los azotes infligidos al condenado dejan a salvo el “respeto debido a la dignidad inherente al ser humano”, o que tienden a alcanzar la “reforma y readaptación” del sentenciado, en el único sentido que éstas poseen en una sociedad democrática y que ciertamente no es la devastación intelectual o moral del sujeto, su reducción absoluta por medio de la violencia, la imposición del puro dolor físico, la humillación del flagelado. Todo esto caracterizó la idea social y estatal sobre la pena en un pasado cada vez más distante, que debiéramos confinar, de una vez y para siempre, en el arcón de la historia.

18. La censura al método de castigo utilizado en este caso --azotes con el “gato de las nueve colas”-- se sustenta en el artículo 5 de la Convención Americana, como lo aprecia la Corte. Se trata, sin duda, de un ataque brutal a la integridad personal. En ese precepto de la Convención, que alude a acciones contraventoras del jus cogens, como se ha observado con gran frecuencia, se reprueban la tortura y las penas o tratos crueles, inhumanos o degradantes, especies del ataque a la integridad personal y de la violación del derecho que sobre este punto se reconoce a todas las personas. En mi concepto, la flagelación que ahora se analiza reviste los rasgos de la tortura, cualquiera que sea el texto internacional que se tenga a la vista para caracterizar ésta: trátese de la Convención de Naciones Unidas, de 1984, trátese de la correspondiente Convención Interamericana, de 1985, mas allá de las diferencias que median entre ambas.

19. En los hechos que ahora nos ocupan aparecen los elementos enunciados en aquellos textos, entre otros: sufrimientos --que en el presente caso revistieron gran intensidad-- causados intencionalmente con finalidad de castigo. Viene al caso, sin duda, una forma de infligir muy graves penalidades, de manera deliberada, por la mano de un agente del Estado, con propósito de castigo corporal. Todo esto encuadra perfectamente en la caracterización internacional de la tortura. Desde luego, al citar la Convención Interamericana no pretendo que ésta se aplique al Estado, que no la ha ratificado. La menciono como instrumento cuya consideración es útil para interpretar las referencias contenidas en el artículo 5 de la Convención Americana. La Corte ha invocado tratados cuya aplicación directa no le corresponde, para el debido entendimiento de las normas que debe aplicar, como son las contenidas en el artículo 5.1 y 2 de la Convención.

20. La Corte Interamericana ha tenido oportunidad de pronunciarse en otros casos sobre la existencia de torturas o de tratos crueles, inhumanos o degradantes.
Al hacerlo, ha tomado en cuenta, entre otros factores --no exclusivamente, pues--, la mayor o menor intensidad del sufrimiento ocasionado a la víctima por la agresión a la integridad personal. En este orden, ha entendido que existe tortura cuando el padecimiento causado reviste especial severidad, que pudiera ser menor –aunque siempre reprobable, desde luego-- en otras manifestaciones del maltrato recogidas en el artículo 5.2 de la Convención Americana. Evidentemente, los sufrimientos causados a la víctima por medio de la flagelación con el “gato de las nueve colas” corresponden a aquellos que pueden ser calificados como tortura.

21. Es obvio que esta calificación sobre la sanción ordenada e infligida en el presente caso no pierde validez por el hecho de que se halle prevista en la legislación
nacional, como antes lo estuvo en otras disposiciones, afortunadamente suprimidas, de tiempo atrás, por la gran mayoría de los Estados. La ‘legalidad’ formal de una conducta no modifica necesariamente su intrínseca ‘injusticia’ o ‘ilegitimidad’, cuestión, ésta, que con gran frecuencia viene al caso a la hora de apreciar la
compatibilidad de disposiciones o actos de autoridad nacionales con principios y normas del Derecho internacional de los derechos humanos, tarea natural de los
tribunales de esta especialidad. Son aleccionadoras las expresiones que a este respecto ha vertido Nigel S. Rodley: “no es posible aceptar la idea de que la
administración de castigos tales como la lapidación, los azotes y la mutilación (…) deban ser consideradas legítimas simplemente porque han sido autorizadas por una vía formalmente válida (…)”.

22. De ahí que no se trate, en la especie, de sufrimientos naturalmente derivados de la ejecución de una pena legítima, es decir, de una sanción que no milita, por si misma, contra la dignidad humana, que es la hipótesis de justificación a la que se refiere, por ejemplo, la última frase del artículo 1.1 de la Convención contra la
tortura y otros tratos o penas crueles, inhumanos o degradantes, de 1984. Lo que he afirmado y aquí destaco es que la pena de azotes resulta contraria, en sí misma, a la dignidad humana.

23. No estamos ante una sanción inevitable e irreductible, absolutamente necesaria, cuya omisión o sustitución ponga en peligro la seguridad colectiva o la paz
pública, en forma tal que no exista medio menos cruel para preservar el orden jurídico y asegurar el imperio de la justicia. Se dirige única y exclusivamente a
causar sufrimiento, sin obtener y ni siquiera pretender un objetivo moral plausible. Humilla a quien la recibe y envilece a quien la inflige. Al levantar su mano contra un semejante, esgrimiendo un instrumento ideado para castigar el cuerpo y dominar el ánimo del infractor, así sea por mandato del Estado, el ejecutor retrocede varios siglos en la historia de nuestra especie. La flagelación es, en fin, pura violencia, que como tal se vuelca sobre el ejecutado y el ejecutor, y que dista mucho de acreditar la autoridad moral y la serenidad justiciera del Estado que la dispone y practica.

24. Cuando un Estado se constituye en parte de un tratado internacional que prohíbe este género de sanciones contrae, a título de obligación general, el deber de
reformar su legislación interna para atender al compromiso internacional adquirido y satisfacer las normas que aquél contiene. Esto puede dar lugar a tensiones entre el Derecho doméstico y el orden internacional --en el que el Estado se inscribe a través de un acto de voluntad soberana--, como también entre el Derecho constitucional interno y el sistema jurídico secundario.

25. Lo anterior ha ocurrido bajo la denominada “cláusula de exclusión” (savings clause). En la sentencia del presente caso se cita una resolución del Judicial
Committee del Privy Council, de 2002, en torno a un proceso seguido en Bahamas y relacionado, precisamente, con la pena de flagelación (Prince Pinder v. The Queen, Privy Council Appeal No. 40/2001 (Bahamas), September 23, 2002 (2003) 1 AC 620, para. 5). Esta pena --dice el Judicial Committee-- es un castigo inhumano y degradante, y como tal se encuentra prohibida por las previsiones constitucionales que reprueban la tortura y los tratos o penas inhumanas o degradantes. Empero, subsiste el ilícito castigo merced a la “savings clause” de la Constitución local.

26. La reforma de la ley doméstica para ajustarla al patrón internacional aceptado por el Estado es una consecuencia obvia de la incorporación a un instrumento
internacional. No es relevante, para este efecto, la salvedad contenida en la mencionada “cláusula de exclusión” (savings clause), que pretende dejar ciertas
antiguas disposiciones de la legislación estatal al margen de los mandamientos constitucionales, que en este caso son disposiciones concernientes a la tutela de los
derechos humanos y, por lo tanto, al tema principal, el más entrañable, del Estado de Derecho. Al respecto, tómese en cuenta, más aún, que el Estado ratificó la
Convención Americana y aceptó la jurisdicción contenciosa de la Corte en 1991, es decir, muchos años después de la emisión de la Corporal Punishment Act (1953) y de la Constitución (1976).

27. En la especie, la cláusula mencionada significa una anticipada derogación de la Constitución: ésta no se aplicará sobre situaciones regidas por leyes preexistentes, aunque la nueva ley suprema recoja las mejores preocupaciones protectoras del individuo --el ciudadano, en cuyo beneficio se construye el Estado--, y la antigua ley persista en ideas todavía más antiguas que la fecha de su expedición. El sentido de una nueva ley progresista es, precisamente, crear una nueva situación plausible. La savings clause impide que esto ocurra y mantiene el pasado vigente hacia el futuro. Subordina un propósito superior --la salvaguardia de los derechos humanos-- a una decisión inferior --la retención de un castigo desahuciado por la propia Constitución.

28. Sorprende que semejante cláusula pueda dejar en suspenso nada menos que las normas que constituyen la entraña del moderno Estado de Derecho, la sustancia misma de la Constitución y la razón de ser de la sociedad política, esto es, los derechos fundamentales del individuo, reconocidos por una disposición suprema actual pero desconocidos --eficazmente desconocidos-- por una disposición secundaria instalada en el pretérito y que sigue operando, sin embargo --y a contrapelo de la Constitución misma--, en el presente y aspira a hacerlo, puesto que rige sine die, por todo el porvenir.

III. PLAZO RAZONABLE

29. En el presente caso se hizo notar la inobservancia del “plazo razonable” para concluir un proceso y aplicar una pena, inobservancia que afectaría el debido proceso legal. Este problema se ha observado tanto desde el ángulo del enjuiciamiento en si mismo, que culmina con una sentencia, como desde la perspectiva de la ejecución penal que tiene, como título ejecutivo, esa resolución final. No ingresó la Corte en la consideración del carácter procesal que pudiera tener la ejecución, o bien, visto bajo otro lente, de la aplicabilidad a ésta de los principios que informan el debido proceso penal.

30. Es obvio que la desatención al plazo razonable sigue siendo un problema central de la justicia penal, cuyas reformas no han conseguido responder con
suficiencia y definitividad a la demanda de brevedad, diligencia, expeditez en la administración de justicia. Ahora bien, en las circunstancias del caso sub judice
resulta evidente que la Corte Interamericana no podía considerar que la sanción de azotes, en sí misma ilícita, se debió ejecutar con celeridad --conforme a las
disposiciones del Derecho interno--, para atender los requerimientos del debido proceso. La ilegitimidad de la medida es flagrante, cualesquiera que sean el plazo y la fecha para disponerla e infligirla. La demora contra legem no genera la violación; sólo exhibe su existencia y agrava sus consecuencias.

IV. CONDICIONES DE DETENCIÓN

31. También llama la atención, a propósito de los hechos del presente caso, la persistencia de un problema mayor en el ámbito de la justicia penal, observado
constantemente en un creciente número de asuntos sometidos a la jurisdicción contenciosa de la Corte y examinado, inclusive, en alguna opinión consultiva. Me refiero a las condiciones de detención en la gran mayoría de las prisiones --sean instituciones para menores de edad, sean reclusorios para adultos--, que resultan
radicalmente incompatibles con la Convención Americana y con los denominados “estándares” internacionales en esta materia, expuestos en diversos instrumentos mundiales y regionales, sobre todo a partir de las Reglas Mínimas de Naciones Unidas sobre Tratamiento de los Reclusos (Ginebra, 1955), que han cumplido medio siglo y son ampliamente conocidas, pero frecuentemente desatendidas. Una vez más, la realidad se ha rebelado contra las normas. Los discursos y los hechos corren por separado.

32. De la situación prevaleciente -como se percibe a través de las sentencias de la Corte Interamericana y de diversas medidas provisionales ordenadas por ésta-- y del concepto reiterado por el mismo Tribunal acerca de la función de garante que corresponde al Estado con respecto a las personas sujetas a custodia --adultos o menores, sanos o enfermos--, se desprende la necesidad imperiosa de emprender cuanto antes una reforma verdadera e integral de los sistemas de detención. Esto abarca normas, medidas, establecimientos, personal de custodia y alternativas a la reclusión, entre otras cosas. Son muchas, de suyo, las paradojas e insuficiencias de la prisión. A ello se añade, para agravar el estado de cosas que tenemos a la vista, el quebranto reiterado o constante de las reglas cuya observancia pudiera aportar un sistema de reclusión siquiera medianamente aceptable.

33. Se ha señalado, con abundantes elementos para hacerlo, que las instituciones de internamiento constituyen el escenario de constantes, sistemáticas y arraigadas violaciones a los derechos humanos, que con frecuencia revisten, además, la mayor gravedad. A este respecto hay que volver los ojos a un amplio número de sentencias o resoluciones sobre medidas provisionales emitidas en los últimos años: por ejemplo, Cárcel de Urso Branco, Instituto de Reeducación del Menor “Panchito López”, Bulacio, Neira Alegría, Penitenciarías de Mendoza, Lori Berenson, Hilaire, Constantine y Benjamín y otros, etcétera. Esta relación se incrementa con la sentencia sobre el Caso César vs. Trinidad y Tobago. La violación de derechos que trae consigo la insoportable situación que prevalece en numerosas prisiones constituye ya uno de los grandes temas planteados ante la jurisdicción interamericana.

V. PROPORCIONALIDAD DE LA PENA

34. En este caso pudo figurar la consideración sobre la racionalidad --que implica, en la especie, legitimidad-- de la pena privativa de libertad prevista por la ley e
impuesta por el juzgador. En el marco del Derecho penal de la sociedad democrática, que supone la cuidadosa tipificación de las conductas ilícitas y la medición razonable de sus consecuencias, debe existir una graduación adecuada de las reacciones punitivas conforme a los bienes jurídicos afectados y a la lesión causada o al peligro corrido. La mayor jerarquía del bien protegido a través de los tipos penales y la mayor gravedad del daño ocasionado o del peligro corrido determinan la severidad de la sanción aplicable. No es admisible sancionar la tentativa, que es la figura a la que se refiere el expediente integrado en este caso por las autoridades competentes, con penas muy elevadas que debieran asignarse al delito consumado. Si se pierde de vista este principio, como en efecto sucedió, se habrá mellado el principio de proporcionalidad de la pena.

35. El problema de la sanción destaca más todavía cuando se observa la imprecisión legal cuantitativa de ésta, con lo que ello implica en términos de exceso
potencial, que se volvió actual en el caso presentado ante la jurisdicción interna, que no suministra razón alguna para optar por cierta duración en la privación penal de la libertad. A falta de razonamiento suficiente, la pena impuesta se sustenta en el arbitrio. La sección 31.1 de la Offences against the Person Act, que contiene el tipo penal (aparentemente) considerado en este caso, manifiesta: “Any person who is convicted on the crime of rape is liable to imprisonment for life or for any term of years”. De esta suerte, toda violación carnal, independientemente de las condiciones en las que hubiera sido cometida, e incluso del grado de ejecución al que se hubiese llegado en el iter criminis --que, en la especie, fue el de tentativa-- se halla sujeta a una pena que puede oscilar entre un año y reclusión perpetua, a discreción del tribunal.

36. Así, la ley prevé una sola punibilidad para dos situaciones obviamente diferentes: la violación consumada y la tentativa de violación. La ley no contiene regla alguna para deslindar las consecuencias penales que pudieran derivar, en un caso concreto, de esta identidad punitiva. Todo esto se desprende no sólo de la lectura del ordenamiento, sino también de la explícita apreciación hecha por el juez y por los abogados participantes --defensor y acusador--, acerca del sentido y el alcance de las normas correspondientes, apreciación de la que existe constancia en el expediente. Semejante indeterminación difícilmente se podría mirar con
naturalidad a la luz de la legalidad penal y de los derechos del inculpado.

37. Nos encontramos de nueva cuenta ante una situación de tabla rasa como la que se presentó con respecto a la Mandatory Death Penalty, acerca de la cual se pronunció la Corte en una resolución (Hilaire, Constantine y Benjamín y otros vs. Trinidad y Tobago, sentencia del 21 de junio de 2002) a la que acompañé un Voto razonado, algunas de cuyas consideraciones son aplicables al presente caso, en cuanto se refieren a principios generales del Derecho penal desatendidos por la legislación aplicada entones y ahora. Es obvio que la racionalidad penal no entraña, por sí misma, conflicto alguno entre los derechos del inculpado, por una
parte, y la seguridad pública y la protección a la víctima, por la otra.

Sergio García Ramírez
Juez
Pablo Saavedra Alessandri
Secretario
CONCURRING JUDGMENT OF JUDGE JACKMAN

The present judgment, with which I wholly concur, is of particular importance for at least three reasons: its reaffirmation that the practice of corporal punishment by States Parties to the American Convention on Human Rights (“the Convention”) is in flagrant breach of that treaty; its insistence on the absolute necessity that States should respect their treaty obligations; and its rejection of the dismal device known as “savings clauses” which have the effect of permitting certain states in the Commonwealth Caribbean the luxury of simultaneously reprobating and approbating internationally illicit behaviours.

Corporal punishment

The Court’s judgment adequately details the extent to which international human rights jurisprudence has outlawed this cruel, inhuman, and degrading punishment, so that there is no need for me to dilate on it further. It is, however, worth noting that, quite apart from the international opprobrium which this practice has attracted, the Supreme Curt of a jurisdiction with great constitutional similarity to Trinidad and Tobago had no difficulty, in the Barbadian case of Hobbs et al v R, in finding that flogging with the cat-o´-nine-tails is, in the words of Chief Justice Sir Denys Williams, “…inhuman within the meaning of section 15(1) [of the Constitution of Barbados]” and “…degrading within the meaning of section 15(1)”. The section referred to by the learned Chief Justice reads as follows:
15. (1) No person shall be subjected to torture or to inhuman or degrading punishment of other treatment. The relevant Trinidad and Tobago constitutional provision states that: […The] Parliament may not… impose or authorize the imposition of cruel and unusual treatment or punishment […] Pacta sunt servanda

But, will Trinidad and Tobago comply with the decision of the Court? To judge from its failure to participate in the hearing of this case, and given its previous
contemptuous attitude in the Hilaire case, compliance is, to say the least, unlikely. This despite the State’s indisputable responsibility under international law to answer to the Inter-American human rights system for any violations of the Convention alleged to have taken place during the period from May 28 1991, the day on which the State ratified the Convention and recognised the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court, and May 26, 1999, the day on which its denunciation of the Convention took legal effect.

The principle that states should abide in good faith by the terms of treaties into which they voluntarily enter (pacta sunt servanda) is the bedrock of international comity and international law. Article 26 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (“the Vienna Convention”) reads as follows: “Every treaty in force is binding upon the parties to it and must be performed by them in good faith”. (Emphasis added.)

It ought to be obvious that good faith compliance is of even greater importance in the area of international human rights law, where what is at stake is not the impersonal interests of states but the protection of the fundamental rights of the individual. Trinidad and Tobago’s denunciation of the Convention was profoundly
regrettable for the cause of a universal regime of human rights protection, but the State was fully within its rights to take that unprecedented step. But its contumelious refusal to acknowledge its continuing obligations under a treaty that remained in force for it when the violations in this case took place represents a gratuitous attack on the Rule of Law, all the more astonishing in a State that, like other Commonwealth Caribbean states, prides itself on its Common Law traditions, where respect for human rights and for the Rule of Law are deeply embedded in the legal culture.At present, in the wake of Trinidad and Tobago’s brief sojourn and precipitous withdrawal, only four of those states are party to the Convention. Only one, Barbados, has accepted the contentious jurisdiction of the Court. On the evidence of that State’s recent refusal, in the context of its very first procedural contact with the Court, to obey an interlocutory Order of the Court in a matter referred to the Court by the Inter-American Commission under the terms of Article 63.2 of the Convention, it seems that Barbados is bent on following the scofflaw example of its CARICOM colleague and neighbour. Although - unlike Trinidad and Tobago in the instant case - Barbados has displayed a minimum of courtesy in actually making a response to the Order of the Court, that response is in the form of a claim that the State is exempt from the Court’s jurisdiction, on the juridically incoherent ground that to obey any such order would conflict with its Constitution. This is in direct antithesis to the precept contained in Article 27 of the Vienna Convention: “A party may not invoke the provisions of its internal law as justification for its failure to perform a treaty.” There is, unfortunately, no evidence that any of the Commonwealth Caribbean States Parties to the Convention has taken action to meet the obligation set out in Article 2, “Domestic Legal Effects”, viz: “Where the exercise of any of the rights or freedoms referred to in Article 1 is not already ensured by legislative or other provisions, the States Parties undertake to adopt, in accordance with their constitutional processes and the provisions of this Convention, such legislative or other measures as may be necessary to give effec to those rights or freedoms.” “Savings Clauses” As the Court has found both in the instant case and, previously, in the Hilaire
case, Section 6 of the Trinidad and Tobago Constitution, the so-called “savings clause”, (mirrored in similar constitutional provisions in the Commonwealth
Caribbean) has the effect of protecting from scrutiny in the national Courts certain State acts that would otherwise be in breach of the fundamental rights provisions of the said Constitution. However, by virtue of the principle set out in Article 26 of the Vienna Convention, this does not exempt the State from its duty under international law; to the extent that such a provision purports so to do, it constitutes a clear breach of the relevant international obligations.

Countries that enter voluntarily and sovereignly into treaties cannot pick and choose which treaty obligations to obey and which to flout. Even where reservations are entered, it is clearly settled international law and practice that such reservations must not be “incompatible with the object and purpose of the treaty”. (Vienna
Convention: Article 19).

Trinidad and Tobago has exercised its sovereign right to denounce and withdraw from the Convention. No State, however, having committed itself to an
international agreement, can in good faith refuse to abide by those obligations which it unambiguously undertook to honour during the period of the treaty’s validity. This would make a mockery of international law and, in the particular case of human rights treaties, would undermine a regime of international concern for the individual human being that dates back at least to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. That there is emerging a clear tendency on the part of Commonwealth Caribbean states in this dismal direction, with its implications for the integrity and inclusiveness of the Inter-American system, is a matter of the very gravest concern.


Oliver Jackman
Judge
Pablo Saavedra Alessandri
Secretary

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE A.A. CANÇADO TRINDADE

1. I have concurred with my vote in the adoption of the present Judgment of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights in the Caesar versus Trinidad and Tobago case. Given the relevant legal issues dealt with by the Court in its decision, as well as those underlying it and those surrounding the present case, I feel obliged to leave on the records my personal reflections on them as foundations of my position on the matter. I shall address, in the present Separate Opinion, the following points which I consider of key importance, not only for a better understanding of the Court's decision in the present Caesar case, but also for the handling of future cases in which such issues may possibly also be raised: a) the humanization of the law of the treaties, as illustrated by developments concerning interpretation of treaties, reservations to treaties, denunciation of treaties, and termination and suspension of the operation of treaties; b) international rule of law: non-appearance before an international tribunal and the duty of compliance with its judgment; and c) the expanding material content and scope of jus cogens in contemporary international law.

I. The Humanization of the Law of Treaties.

2. It is hardly surprising that basic considerations of humanity surround recently emerged domains of international law, such as that of the international protection of
human rights. But the incidence of those considerations upon more traditional areas of international law, which were in the past approached, almost invariably, from the angle of the "will" of States, is indicative of the new times, and a new mentality centred rather on the ultimate addressees of international norms, the human beings.

3. The law of treaties affords a pertinent illustration, disclosing that it is no longer entirely at the mercy of the "will" of States and that it, too, acknowledges certain
superior common values that the international community as a whole deems should be preserved. Pertinent examples can be found in such areas of the law of treaties pertaining to interpretation of treaties, reservations to treaties, denunciation of treations, and termination and suspension of the operation of treaties. I shall review, however succinctly, each of them, before presenting my concluding observations on the matter.

1. Considerations on the Interpretation of Treaties.
a) General Remarks.

4. When one comes to the interpretation of human rights treaties, as well as of other international treaties, one is inclined to resort at first to the provisions enshrined in Articles 31-33 of the two Vienna Conventions on the Law of Treaties (of 1969 and 1986, respectively), and in particular to the combination under Article 31 of the elements of the ordinary meaning of the terms, the context, and the object and purpose of the treaties at issue57. One then promptly finds that, in practice, while in traditional law there has been a marked tendency to pursue a rather restrictive interpretation which gives as much precision as possible to the obligations of States Parties, in the international law of human rights, somewhat distinctly, there has been a clear and special emphasis on the element of the object and purpose of the treaty, so as to ensure an effective protection (effet utile)58 of the guaranteed rights.

5. Whilst in general international law the elements for the interpretation of treaties evolved primarily as guidelines for the process of interpretation by States Parties
themselves, human rights treaties, in their turn, have called for an interpretation of their provisions bearing in mind the essentially objective character of the obligations ntered into by States Parties: such obligations aim at the protection of human rights and not at the establishment of subjective and reciprocal rights for the States Parties. Hence the special emphasis on the element of the object and purpose of human rights treaties, of which the case-law of the two regional - the Inter-American and the European - Courts of Human Rights gives eloquent testimony.

6. The interpretation and application of human rights treaties have been guided by considerations of a superior general interest or ordre public which transcend the
individual interests of Contracting Parties. As indicated by the jurisprudence constante of the two international human rights tribunals, those treaties are distinct from treaties of the classic type, incorporating restrictively reciprocal concessions and compromises; human rights treaties prescribe obligations of an essentially objective character, implemented collectively by mechanisms of supervision of their own59. The rich caselaw on methods of interpretation of human rights treaties has enhanced the protection of the human person at international level and has enriched International Law under the impact of the International Law of Human Rights.

7. The converging case-law to this effect has generated the commonunderstanding, in the regional (European and inter-American) systems of human rights protection, that human rights treaties are endowed with a special nature (as distinguished from multilateral treaties of the traditional type); that human rights
treaties have a normative character, of ordre public; that their terms are to be autonomously interpreted; that in their application one ought to ensure an effective protection (effet utile) of the guaranteed rights; that the obligations enshrined therein do have and objective character, and are to be duly complied with by the tates
Parties, which have the additional common duty of exercise of the collective guarantee of the protected rights; and that permissible restrictions (limitations and derogations) to the exercise of guaranteed rights are to be restrictively interpreted. The work of the Inter-American and European Courts of Human Rights has indeed contributed to the creation of an international ordre public based upon the respect for human rights in all circumstances60.

8. As I have pondered in my Separate Opinion in the Blake versus Guatemala case (reparations, 1999) before the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, "(...) in so far as human rights treaties are concerned, one is to bear always in mind the objective character of the obligations enshrined therein, the autonomous meaning (in relation to the domestic law of the States) of the terms of such treaties, the collective guarantee underlying them, the wide scope of the obligations of protection and the restrictive interpretation of permissible restrictions. These elements converge in sustaining the integrity of human rights treaties, in seeking the fulfilment
of their object and purpose, and, accordingly, in establishing limits to State voluntarism. From all this one can detect a new vision of the relations between public power and the human being, which is summed up, ultimately, in the recognition that the State exists for the human being, and not vice-versa"61.

9. Another aspect to be here recalled is that of the autonomous meaning of the terms of human rights treaties (as distinct from their meaning, e.g., in domestic law).
The point, stressed by the Human Rights Committee (under the U.N. Covenant on Civil and Political Rights) in the adoption of its views in the Van Duzen versus Canada case (in 1982), has also been taken up by the two regional - European and Inter-American - Courts of Human Rights. The European Court has endorsed the doctrine of autonomous interpretation in its judgments, for example, in the Ringeisen (1971), König (1978) and Le Compte (1981 and 1983) cases. The Inter-American Court, in its turn, in its sixth Advisory Opinion, on The Word "Laws" in Article 30 of the American Convention on Human Rights (1986), clarified that the word "laws" in Article 30 of the American Convention, to be examined in accordance not only with the principle of legality but also with that of legitimacy, means a juridical norm of a general character, turned to the "general welfare", emanated from the legislative organs constitutionally foreseen and democratically elected, and elaborated according to the procedure for law-making established by the Constitutions of States Parties.

10. Moreover, the dynamic or evolutive interpretation of the respective human rights Conventions (the intertemporal dimension) has been followed by both the
European Court62 and the Inter-American Court63, so as to fulfil the changing needs of protection of the human being; in its sixteenth and pioneering Advisory Opinion, on The Right to Information on Consular Assistance in the Framework of the Guarantees of the Due Process of Law (1999), which has inspired the international case-law in statu nascendi on the matter, the Inter-American Court has clarified that, in its interpretation of the norms of the American Convention, it should extend protection in new situations (such as that concerning the observance of the right to information on consular assistance) on the basis of pre-existing rights. The same vision has been propounded by the Inter-American Court in its subsequent forward-looking eighteenth Advisory Opinion, on the Juridical Condition and Rights of Undocumented Migrants (2003).

11. There is a converging case-law of the two regional Human Rights Courts - and indeed of other human rights international supervisory organs - on this issue. Thus, the European Court of Human Rights has reiteratedly pronounced to that effect64; in the Loizidou versus Turkey case (1995), for example, the European Court expressly discarded undue restrictions which would not only "seriously weaken" its role in the discharge of its functions but "would also diminish the effectiveness of the Convention as a constitutional instrument of European public order (ordre public)"65. The Inter- American Court of Human Rights, on its part, has likewise repeatedly stressed the object and purpose of human rights treaties and the objective character of the obligations ensuing therefrom66, as well as the special character of human rights treaties, as distinguished from multilateral treaties of the traditional type67.

12. Such convergence of views of the two regional Human Rights Courts on the fundamental issue of the proper interpretation of human rights treaties naturally ensues from the overriding identity of the object and purpose of those treaties. General international law itself bears witness of the principle (apparently subsumed under the general rule of interpretation of Article 31 of the two Vienna Conventions on the Law of Treaties) whereby the interpretation is to enable a treaty to have appropriate effects68, - a principle which has been resorted to against eventual calls for an unduly restrictive interpretation. There is a jurisprudence constante pointing towards the restrictive interpretation of provisions which limit or restrict the exercise of recognised human rights69.

13. An aspect which in this respect should not pass unnoticed is that derogation measures and limitations must not be inconsistent with the other obligations under
international law incumbent upon the State Party concerned: thus, neither derogation clauses, nor limitation provisions, of a given human rights treaty, are to be interpreted to restrict the exercise of any human rights protected to a greater extent by other human rights treaties to which the State Party concerned is also a Party. Such understanding finds support in the rule of international law whereby the interpretation and application of a treaty cannot restrict a State's obligations ensuing from other treaties on the subject - in the present case, human rights protection - to which the State at issue is also a Party. In the present domain, international law has been made use of in order to improve and strengthen - and never to weaken or undermine - the protection of recognised human rights70.

14. The specificity of the international law of human rights finds expression not only in the interpretation of human rights treaties in general but also in the interpretation of specific provisions of those treaties. Pertinent illustrations can be found in, e.g., provisions which contain references to general international law. Such is the case, for example, of the requirement of prior exhaustion of local remedies as a condition of admissibility of complaints or communications under human rights treaties; the local remedies rule bears witness of the interaction between international law and domestic law in the present domain of protection, which is fundamentally victim-oriented, concerned with the rights of individual human beings rather than of States. Generally recognised principles or rules of international law - which the formulation of the local remedies rule in human rights treaties refers to, - besides following an evolution of their own in the distinct contexts in which they apply, necessarily suffer, when inserted in human rights treaties, a certain degree of adjustment or adaptation71, dictated by the special character of the object and purpose of those treaties and by the widely recognised specificity of the international law of human rights72.

b) Procedural Issues.

15. Both the European and Inter-American Courts have rightly set limits to State voluntarism, have safeguarded the integrity of the respective human rights Conventions and the primacy of considerations of ordre public over the will of individual States, have set higher standards of State behaviour and established some degree of control over the interposition of undue restrictions by States, and have reassuringly enhanced the position of individuals as subjects of the International Law of Human Rights, with full procedural capacity. In so far as the basis of their jurisdiction in there was no room for implied limitations (limitations implicites); the view has ever since prevailed that the only limitations or restrictions permissible are those for which the human rights treaty itself makes express provision. The obiter dicta of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights in its seventh Advisory Opinion, on the Enforceability of the Right to Reply or Correction (1986) reinforce the necessarily restrictive interpretation of restrictions to the exercise of rights recognised in human rights treaties.

16. The two international human rights Tribunals, by correctly resolving basic procedural issues raised in the aforementioned cases, have aptly made use of the
techniques of public international law in order to strengthen their respective jurisdictions of protection of the human person. They have decisively safeguarded the integrity of the mechanisms of protection of the American and European Conventions on Human Rights, whereby the juridical emancipation of the human person vis-à-vis her own State is achieved. They have, furthermore, achieved a remarkable jurisprudential construction on the right of access to justice (and of obtaining
reparation) at international level.

17. In its historical Judgment in the case, concerning Peru, of the massacre of Barrios Altos (2001), e.g., the Inter-American Court warned that provisions of amnesty, of prescription and of factors excluding responsibility, intended to impede the investigation and punishment of those responsible for grave violations of human rights (such as torture, summary, extra-legal or arbitrary executions, and forced disappearances) are inadmissible; they violate non-derogable rights recognised by the International Law of Human Rights. This case-law has been reiterated by the Court (with regard to prescription) in its decision in the Bulacio versus Argentina case (2003). c) Substantive Law.

18. As to substantive law, the contribution of the two international human rights Courts to this effect is illustrated by numerous examples of their respective case-law pertaining to the rights protected under the two regional Conventions. The European Court has a vast and impressive case-law, for example, on the right to the protection of liberty and security of person (Article 5 of the European Convention), and the right to a fair trial (Article 6). The Inter-American Court has a significant case-law on the fundamental right to life, comprising also the conditions of living, as from its decision in the paradigmatic case of the so-called "Street Children" (Villagrán Morales and Others versus Guatemala, Merits, 1999).

19. Yet another example can be recalled. The definition of the crime of torture found today in two of the three co-existing Conventions against Torture (the U.N. Convention of 1984, Article 1, and the Inter-American Convention of 1985, Article 2) owes its contents to international human rights case-law, rather than to the tipification of the crime of torture at domestic law level. In fact, the constitutive elements of torture in the definition found in the two aforementioned Conventions73 ensue from the jurisprudential construction of the old European Commission of Human Rights in the Greek case (1967-1970), further discussed by the Commission and the European Court in the Ireland versus United Kingdom case (1971-1978).

20. In this particular instance, international case-law influenced international legislation in the field of human rights protection. The extensive case-law of the
European Court covers virtually the totality of the rights protected under the European Convention and some of its Protocols. The growing case-law of the Inter-American Court, in its turn, appears innovative and forward-looking with regard to the right to life, reparations in its multiple forms, and provisional measures of protection, these latter sometimes benefiting members of entire human collectivities74.2. Considerations on the Reservations to Treaties.

21. International supervisory organs in the domain of human rights protection have in recent years disclosed their awareness - and, on some occasions, their determination - to the effect of preserving the integrity of human rights treaties. It may be recalled that, inspired in the criterion sustained by the International Court of Justice in its Advisory Opinion of 1951 on the Reservations to the Convention against Genocide75, the present system of reservations set forth in the two Vienna Conventions of the Law of Treaties (of 1969 and 1986, Articles 19-23)76, in joining the formulation of reservations to the acquiescence or the objections thereto for the determination of their compatibility with the object and purpose of the treaties, is of a markedly voluntarist and contractualist character.

22. Such a system leads to a fragmentation (in the bilateral relations) of the conventional obligations of the States Parties to multilateral treaties, appearing inadequate to human rights treaties, which are inspired in superior common values and are applied in conformity with the notion of collective guarantee. That system of reservations77 suffers from notorious insufficiencies when transposed from the law of treaties in general into the domain of the International Law of Human Rights. To start with, it does not distinguish between human rights treaties and classic treaties, making abstraction of the jurisprudence constante of the organs of international supervision of human rights, converging in pointing out that distinction.

23. It allows reservations (not objected) of a wide scope which threaten the very integrity of human rights treaties; it allows reservations (not objected) to provisions of these treaties which incorporate universal minimum standards (undermining, e.g., the basic judicial guarantees of inviolable rights). If certain fundamental rights - starting with the right to life - are non-derogable (in the terms of the human rights treaties themselves), thereby not admitting any derogations which, by definition, are of an essentially temporal or transitory character, - with greater reason, it would seem to me, a fortiori they do not admit any reservations, perpetuated in time until and unless withdrawn by the State at issue; such reservations would be, in my understanding, without any caveat, incompatible with the object and purpose of those treaties.

24. Although the two Vienna Conventions on the Law of Treaties prohibit the acceptance of reservations incompatible with the object and purpose of the treaty at
issue, they leave, however, various questions without answers. The criterion of the compatibility is applied in the relations with the States which effectively objected to the reservations, although such objections are often motivated by factors - including political - other than a sincere and genuine concern on the part of the objecting States with the prevalence of the object and purpose of the treaty at issue. For the same reason, from the silence or acquiescence of the States Parties in relation to certain reservations one cannot infer a belief on their part that the reservations are compatible with the object and purpose of the treaty at issue.

25. Such silence or acquiescence, moreover, appears to undermine the application of the criterion of the compatibility of a reservation with the object and purpose of the treaty. And the two Vienna Conventions referred to are not clear either, as to the legal effects of a non-permissible reservation, or of an objection to a reservation considered incompatible with the object and purpose of the treaty at issue. They do not clarify, either, who ultimately ought to determine the permissibility or otherwise of a reservation, or to pronounce on its compatibility or otherwise with the object and purpose of the treaty at issue.

26. The present system of reservations permits even reservations (not objected) which hinder the possibilities of action of the international supervisory organs (created by human rights treaties), rendering difficult the realization of their object and purpose. The above-mentioned Vienna Conventions not only fail to establish a mechanism to determine the compatibility or otherwise of a reservation with the object and purpose of a given treaty78, but - even more gravely - do not impede either that certain reservations or restrictions formulated (in the acceptance of the jurisdiction of the organs of international protection)79 come to hinder the operation of the mechanisms of international supervision created by the human rights treaties in the exercise of the collective guarantee.


27. The present system of reservations, reminiscent of the old Pan-American practice, rescued by the International Court of Justice80 and the two Vienna
Conventions on the Law of Treaties, for having crystallised itself in the relations between States, not surprisingly appears entirely inadequate to the treaties whose
ultimate beneficiaries are the human beings and not the Contracting Parties. Definitively, human rights treaties, turned to the relations between States and human
beings under their jurisdiction, do not bear a system of reservations which approaches them as from an essentially contractual and voluntarist perspective, undermining their integrity, allowing their fragmentation, leaving at the discretion of the Parties themselves the final determination of the extent of their conventional obligations.

28. As the two Vienna Conventions of 1969 and 1986 do not provide any indication for an objective application of the criterion of the compatibility or otherwise of a reservation with the object and purpose of a treaty, they leave it, on the contrary, to be applied individually and subjectively by the Contracting Parties themselves, in such a way that, at the end, only the reserving State knows for sure the extent of the implications of its reservation. Despite the efforts in expert writing to the effect of systematizing the practice of States on the matter81, it is difficult to avoid the impression that such practice has been surrounded by uncertainties and ambiguities, and has remained inconclusive to date. This indefinition is not at all reassuring for human rights treaties, endowed as they are with mechanisms of international supervision of their own. This general picture of indefinition has thus, not surprisingly, led the U.N. International Law Commission (ILC) to engage itself, as from 1998, in the preparation of a Draft Practical Guide on Reservations to Treaties82 (cf. infra).

29. It calls the attention, for example, to find one's extensive list of reservations, numerous and at times long, and often incongruous, of States Parties to the U.N.
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights83; and the practical problems generated by many of the reservations (also numerous and not always consistent) of the States Parties to the U.N. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women are well-known, - to what one may add the reservations to the U.N. Convention against Torture and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination84.

30. With the persistence of the inadequacy and the insufficiencies of the present system of reservations, it is not at all surprising that, firstly, multiple expressions of
dissatisfaction in this respect in contemporary legal doctrine (both in general studies on the matter85 and in respect of specific human rights treaties86); and secondly, the preparedness of human rights international supervisory organs to assert their competence to apply by themselves the criterion of the compatibility (supra) and to contribute thereby to secure the integrity of the respective human rights treaties.

31. At regional level, in its well-known judgment in the Belilos versus Switzerland case (1988)87, locus classicus on the issue, the European Court of Human Rights considered the declaration amounting to a reservation (of a general character) of Switzerland to the European Convention on Human Rights incompatible with the object and purpose of this latter (in the light of its Article 64). On its turn, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, in its second and third Advisory Opinions88, pointed out the difficulties of a pure and simple transposition from the system of reservations of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties of 1969 into the domain of the international protection of human rights.

32. At global level, in the I. Gueye et alii versus France case (1989), e.g., the Human Rights Committee (under the U.N. Covenant on Civil and Political Rights), in
spite of a reservation ratione temporis of the respondent State89, understood that the question at issue90 was justiciable under the Covenant91, and concluded that there was a violation of Article 26 of the Covenant92. The same Committee, in its general comment n. 24(52), of November 1994, warned that the provisions of the two Vienna Conventions and the classic rules on reservations (based upon reciprocity) were not appropriate to the human rights treaties; given the special character of the Covenant as a human rights treaty, the question of the compatibility of a reservation with its object and purpose, instead of being left at the discretion of the manifestations of the States Parties inter se, should be objectively determined, on the basis of juridical principles, by the Human Rights Committee itself93.

33. Given the specificity of the International Law of Human Rights, there appears a strong case for leaving the determination of the compatibility or otherwise of
reservations with the object and purpose of human rights treaties with the international supervisory organs established by them, rather than with the States Parties
themselves; it would be more in keeping with the special character of human rights treaties. To the two international human rights tribunals (the European and Inter- American Courts), the individualistic system of reservations does not seem to be in keeping with the notion of collective control machinery proper to human rights treaties. The obiter dicta of the two regional Human Rights Courts have been rendered despite the fact that the European Convention (Article 64)94 and the American Convention (Article 75) on Human Rights do not expressly confer this function upon them; the American Convention, in fact, limits itself to referring to the pertinent provisions of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties.

34. Given the uncertainties, ambiguities and lacunae in the present system of reservations to treaties of the two Vienna Conventions of 1969 and 1986 (supra),
proposals have been advanced in contemporary doctrine95 tending at least to reduce the tension as to the proper application of human rights treaties in the matter of reservations, namely: first, the inclusion of an express indication in human rights treaties of the provisions which do not admit any reservations (such as those pertaining to the fundamental non-derogable rights), as an irreducible minimum to participate in such treaties; second, as soon as the States Parties have proceeded to the harmonization of their domestic legal order with the norms of those treaties (as required by these latter), the withdrawal of their reservations to them96; third, the modification or rectification, by the State Party, of a reservation considered nonpermissible or incompatible with the object and purpose of the treaty97, whereby a reservation would thus be seen no longer as a formal and final element of the manifestation of State consent, but rather as an essentially temporal measure, to be modified or removed as soon as possible; fourth, the adoption of a possible "collegial system" for the acceptance of reservations98, so as to safeguard the normative character of human rights treaties, bearing in mind, in this respect, the rare example of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination99; fifth, the elaboration of guidelines (although not binding) on the existing rules (of the two Vienna Conventions of 1969 and 1986) in the matter of reservations, so as to clarify them in practice100; and sixth, the attribution to the depositaries of human rights treaties of the faculty to request periodic information from the reserving States on the reasons why they have not yet withdrawn their reservations to such treaties.

35. The recent work (as from 1993) of the International Law Commission of the United Nations on the topic of the Law and Practice Concerning Reservations to Treaties tends to identify the essence of the question in the need to determine the powers of the human rights international supervisory organs in the matter, in the light of the general rules of the law of treaties101. This posture makes abstraction of the specificity of the International Law of Human Rights, attaching itself to the existing postulates of the law of treaties. The debates of 1997 of the International Law Commission focused effectively on the question of the applicability of the system of reservations of the Vienna Conventions in relation to human rights treaties. Although the point of view prevailed that the pertinent provisions of those Conventions should not be modified102, it was acknowledged that that system of reservations should be improved, given its lacunae, above all in relation to non-permissible reservations103.

36. In the debates of the Commission, it was even admitted that the conventional organs of protection of judicial character (the regional European and Inter-American Courts of Human Rights) pronounce on the permissibility of reservations when necessary to the exercise of their functions104; such considerations were reflected in the "Preliminary Conclusions on Reservations to Multilateral Normative Treaties Including Human Rights Treaties", adopted by the Commission in 1997 (paragraphs 4-7)105. In my understanding, there are compelling reasons to go further, and the relevant labour of the ILC on the matter could lead to solutions satisfactory to human rights international supervisory organs to the extent that it started from the recognition of the special character of human rights treaties and gave precision to the juridical consequences - for the treatment of the question of reservations - which ensue from that recognition.

37. It seems unlikely, however, that it is prepared to pursue that approach. In its more recent version of its Draft Guidelines on Reservations to Treaties (2003),
provisionally adopted by the ILC, it urged States and international organizations to "undertake a periodic review" of their reservations to treaties, and to "consider
withdrawing those which no longer serve their purpose"106, - though it did not pursue the aforementioned approach. Such review, - added the ILC, - "should devote special attention to the aim of preserving the integrity of multilateral treaties"107. Thus, draft guideline 2.5.3 reflects the concerns of monitoring bodies ("particularly but not exclusively in the field to human rights"), to call often upon States to reconsider their reservations and if possible to withdraw them108. The ILC has conceded that "The reference to the integrity of multilateral treaties is an allusion to the drawbacks of reservations, that may undermine the unity of the treaty regime"109.

38. It may be pointed out that human rights treaties have in a way been singled out when one comes to denunciation, and termination and suspension of the operation of treaties; I see, thus, no epistemological or juridical reason why the same could not be done also in relation to reservations. In my view, the conferment of the power of determination of the compatibility or otherwise of reservations with the object and purpose of human rights treaties on the international supervisory organs themselves created by such treaties, would be much more in conformity with the special nature of these latter and with the objective character of the conventional obligations of protection110.

39. There is a whole logic and common sense in attributing such power to those organs, guardians as they are of the integrity of human rights treaties, instead of
abandoning such determination to the interested States Parties themselves, as if they were, or could be, the final arbiters of the scope of their conventional obligations111. Such system of objective determination would foster the process of progressive institutionalisation of the international protection of human rights112, as well as the creation of a true international public order (ordre public) based on the full respect to, and observance of, human rights. It is about time for the current process of humanization of International Law113 to encompass likewise the domain of the law of treaties, traditionally so vulnerable to manifestations of State voluntarism.

40. It is my understanding that, from the perspective of a minimally institutionalised international community, the system of reservations to treaties, such as it still prevails in our days, is rudimentary and rather primitive. There is pressing need to develop a system of objective determination of the compatibility or otherwise of reservations with the object and purpose of human rights treaties, although for that it may be considered necessary an express provision in future human rights treaties, or the adoption to that effect of protocols to the existing instruments114.

41. Only with such a system of objective determination will we succeed in guarding coherence with the special character of human rights treaties, which set forth
obligations of an objective character and are applied by means of the exercise of the collective guarantee. Only thus will we succeed to establish, in the ambit of the law of treaties, standards of behaviour which contribute to the creation of a true international ordre public based on the respect and observance of human rights, with the corresponding obligations erga omnes of protection. We stand in need of the renovation and humanization of the law of treaties as a whole, comprising also the forms of manifestation of State consent.

42. I do not see how not to take into account the experience of international supervision accumulated by the conventional organs of protection of human rights in
the last decades. Any serious evaluation of the present system of reservations to treaties cannot fail to take into account the practice, on the matter, of such organs of protection. It cannot pass unnoticed that the International Court of Justice, in its already mentioned Advisory Opinion of 1951, effectively recognised, in a pioneering way, the special character of the Convention for the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide of 1948, but without having extracted from its acknowledgement all the juridical consequences for the regime of reservations to treaties.

43. Almost half a century having lapsed, this is the task which is incumbent upon us, all of us who have the responsibility and the privilege to act in the domain of the international protection of human rights. The words pronounced by the Hague Court in 1951 remain topical nowadays, in pointing out that, in a Convention such as that of 1948, adopted for a "purely humanitarian" purpose, "(...) the Contracting States do not have any interest of their own; they merely have, one and all, a common interest, namely, the accomplishment of those high purposes which are the raison d'être of the Convention. Consequently, in a Convention of this type one cannot speak of individual advantages and disadvantages to States, of the maintenance of a perfect contractual balance between rights and duties.
The high ideals which inspired the Convention provide, by virtue of the common will of the Parties, the foundation and measure of all its provisions"115.

44. I see no sense in trying to try to escape from the acknowledgement of the specificity of the International Law of Human Rights as a whole, the recognition of
which, in my understanding, in no way threatens the unity of Public International Law; quite on the contrary, it contributes to develop the aptitude of this latter to secure, in the present domain, compliance with the conventional obligations of protection of the States vis-à-vis all human beings under their jurisdictions. With the evolution of the International Law of Human Rights, it is Public International Law itself which is justified and legitimised, in affirming juridical principles, concepts and categories proper to the present domain of protection, based on premises fundamentally distinct from those which have guided the application of its postulates at the level of purely inter-State relations116.

45. One is not, therefore, here proposing that the development of the International Law of Human Rights be brought about to the detriment of the law of treaties: my understanding, entirely distinct, is in the sense that the norms of the law of treaties (such as those set forth in the two above-mentioned Vienna Conventions, anyway of a residual character) can greatly enrich with the impact of the International Law of Human Rights, and develop their aptitude to regulate adequately the legal relations at inter-State as well as intra-State levels, under the respective treaties of protection. In sustaining the development of a system of objective determination - which seems to us wholly necessary - of the compatibility or otherwise of reservations with the object and purpose of human rights treaties in particular, in which the organs of international protection created by such treaties would exert an important role, we do not see in that any threat to the "unity" of the law of treaties.

46. Quite on the contrary, there could hardly be something more fragmenting and underdeveloped than the present system of reservations of the two Vienna
Conventions, for which reason it would be entirely illusory to assume that, to continue applying it as until now, one would thereby be fostering the "unity" of the law of treaties. The true unity of the law of treaties, in the framework of Public International Law, would be better served by the search for improvement in this area, overcoming the ambiguities, uncertainties and lacunae of the present system of reservations, through the development of a system of objective determination (supra), in conformity with the special nature of human rights treaties and the objective character of the conventional obligations of protection. The unity of Public International Law itself is measured rather by its aptitude to regulate legal relations in distinct contexts with equal adequacy and effectiveness.

3. Considerations on the Denunciation of Treaties.

47. The two Vienna Conventions on the Law of Treaties (1969 and 1986) determine that a treaty which contains no provision on denunciation is not subject to
denunciation, unless it can be established that the parties intended to admit the possibility of denunciation of that this latter "may be implied by the nature of the
treaty" (Article 56(1)). The two Vienna Conventions thus open the way to the taking into account of the nature or specificity of certain treaties. As already seen, the special nature of treaties of a humanitarian character (such as human rights treaties) has indeed been taken into account, and has been widely acknowledged. Accordingly, certain limits have been established with regard to the denunciation of such treaties.

48. In fact, basic considerations of humanity have permeated also the clauses of denunciation of certain treaties. This is aptly illustrated, e.g., by the provisions on
denunciation of the four Geneva Conventions on International Humanitarian Law of 1949. According to those provisions (common Article 63/62/142/158), the
denunciation, which will take effect one year after its notification, shall not, however, while the denouncing power is engaged in a conflict, take any effect "until peace has been concluded", and until the "operations connected with the release and repatriation of the persons protected" by the Geneva Conventions "have been terminated". In this way, the obligations of the Parties as to the safeguard of the persons protected under those Conventions subsist, in whatever circumstances, vis-à-vis the denouncing power, while the conflict lasts and the release and repatriation of the persons protected are not concluded117.

49. Furthermore, the denunciation provisions of the aforementioned four Geneva Conventions (common Article 63/62/142/158) expressly preserves the obligations based on "the principles of the law of nations" as they result from "the laws of humanity" and "the dictates of the public conscience" (the Martens clause). Such obligations, as aptly remarked by B.V.A. Röling, continue governing human conduct even when treaties are no longer binding118, - contrary to, I would add, what positivists would mechanically argue. As I have sustained at length in my Concurring Opinion in this Court's Advisory Opinion n. 18 on the Juridical Condition and Rights of Undocumented Migrants (2003), the law of protection of the human being does not exhaust itself in the norms and rules of positive law, it encompasses likewise the principles (which inform and conform those norms and rules), without which there is no legal system at all.

50. Half a decade after the adoption of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, H.W. Briggs pertinently pointed out that the consideration of that Convention in international case-law "has been helpful in furthering the consolidation of the law against unilateral denunciation of international agreements without
accountability therefore"119. The 1984 U.N. Convention against Torture, in this line of concern, provides (Article 31(2)) that a denunciation of it shall not have the effect of releasing the denouncing Party from its obligations under the Convention with regard to "any act or omission which occurs prior to the date at which the denunciation becomes effective", nor shall the denunciation prejudice in any way the "continued consideration" of any matter already under scrutiny by the U.N. Committee against Torture "prior to the date at which the denunciation becomes effective".

51. At regional level, the European Convention on Human Rights, as amended by Protocol n. 11, provides (Article 58) likewise that a denunciation of it shall not have the effect of releasing the denouncing Party from its obligations under the Convention in respect of "any act which, being capable of constituting a violation of such obligations, may have been performed by it before the date at which the denunciation became effective". On its turn, in a similar line of thinking, the 1999 Inter-American Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Persons with Disabilities determines (Article XIII) that a denunciation of it "shall not exempt" the State Party from the obligations imposed upon it under the Convention in respect of "any action or omission prior to the date on which the denunciation takes effect".

52. And the American Convention on Human Rights (Article 78) only admits denunciation "at the expiration of a five-year period from the date of its entry into
force", and by means of "notice given one year in advance". Moreover, such a denunciation shall not have the effect of releasing the denouncing State Party from the obligations contained in the Convention with respect to "any act that may constitute a violation of those obligations" and that "has been taken by that State prior to the effective date of denunciation". The issue of the effects of denunciation, within such limits, became a central one in recent cases concerning Trinidad and Tobago under the American Convention on Human Rights.

53. Trinidad and Tobago became a Party to the American Convention on Human Rights on 28.05.1991, and accepted the Inter-American Court's jurisdiction in
contentious matters on that same date. Later on, on 26.05.1998, it denounced the American Convention; pursuant to Article 78 of the Convention, such denunciation began to have effects one year later, on 26.05.1999. One day before this date the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights filed before the Court the Hilaire case; subsequently, after that date, it lodged with the Court the Constantine et allii case (on 22.02.2000) and the Benjamin et allii case (on 05.10.2000), - the three of them concerning Trinidad and Tobago.

54. As they pertained to acts taken by that State prior to the date of its denunciation, the Court retained jurisdiction and took cognizance of the cases (pursuant to Article 78(2) of the Convention), and rendered its Judgments on preliminary objections in the three cases on 01.09.2001, dismissing an undue restriction formulated by the State in its instrument of acceptance of the Court's compulsory jurisdiction (reiterated in the three cases in the form of a preliminary objection). That restriction would have limited the Court's jurisdiction to the extent that its exercise would be consistent with the national Constitution; the Court considered it incompatible with the object and purpose of the Convention, and an attempt to subordinate this latter to the national Constitution, what would be inadmissible120.

55. The Court then ordered the joinder of the three cases and their respective proceedings (on 30.11.2001), and delivered its Judgment on the merits, finding
violations of the American Convention, on 21.06.2002. Parallel to that, also after the denunciation by Trinidad and Tobago became effective (on 26.05.1999), the Court ordered successive Provisional Measures of Protection, from 27.05.1999 to 02.12.2003, in the case James et allii versus Trinidad and Tobago (as they also pertained to acts taken by the State prior to the date of its denunciation of the Convention). All these decisions of the Court remain binding upon the respondent State; its denunciation of the Convention does not have the sweeping effect that one might prima facie tend to assume, as the denunciation clause under the American Convention (supra) was surrounded by temporal limitations so as not to allow it to undermine the protection of human rights thereunder.

56. Thus, not even the institution of denunciation of treaties is so absolute in effects as one might prima facie tend to assume. Despite its openness to manifestations of State voluntarism, denunciation has, notwithstanding, been permeated with basic considerations of humanity as well, insofar as treaties of a humanitarian character are concerned. Ultimately, one is here faced with the fundamental, overriding and inescapable principle of good faith (bona fides), and one ought to act accordingly.

4. Considerations on the Termination and Suspension of the Operation of Treaties.

57. The interpretation and application of human rights treaties bear witness of the twilight of reciprocity and of the prominence of considerations of ordre public in the present domain. In fact, the prohibition of the invocation of reciprocity as a subterfuge for non-compliance with humanitarian conventional obligations, is corroborated in unequivocal terms by the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, which, in providing for the conditions in which a breach of treaty may bring about its termination or suspension of its operation, excepts expressly and specifically the "provisions relating to the protection of the human person contained in treaties of a humanitarian character" (Article 60(5)).

58. The provision of Article 60(5) of the two Vienna Conventions on the Law of Treaties (1969 and 1986), acknowledging the special nature of "treaties of a
humanitarian character" and setting forth one of the juridical consequences ensuing therefrom, constitutes a safeguard clause in defence of the human person. In this
sense I saw it fit to point out, in a study on the matter published 14 years ago, that "the law of treaties itself of our days, as confirmed by Article 60(5) of the Vienna Convention [on the Law of Treaties], discards the precept of reciprocity in the implementation of the treaties of international protection of human rights and of International Humanitarian Law, by virtue precisely of the humanitarian character of those instruments. Piercing the veil in a domain of international law -
such as the one concerning treaties - so strongly infiltrated by the voluntarism of States, the aforementioned provision of Article 60(5) of the Vienna Convention de Viena constitutes a clause of safeguard in defence of the human being"121.

59. In the account of one of the participants in the 1968-1969 Vienna Conference from which the first Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969) resulted, the provision at issue resulted from a Swiss amendment, promptly supported by several Delegations, to the effect that the grounds for termination or suspension of operation of treaties should not apply to treaties of a humanitarian character, embodying provisions of protection of the human person122. Article 60(5) was maintained in the second Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1986). Another participant in the Vienna Conference of 1968-1969 pondered that there are certain obligations - of protection of the human person - endowed with an "absolute character", which cannot be allowed to reduce, as "l'idée d'une régression définitive de la conscience humaine est difficile à accepter. En revanche il serait souhaitable que la pratique internationale se moralise dans tous les domaines et acquière ainsi, par la reconnaissance des États, un niveau croissant de valeur: il pourrait et il devrait y avoir normalement de nouvelles règles progressives. Sans
qu'il soit nécessaire d'insister sur ce point, les racines profondes d'une telle conception rejoignent la tradition du droit naturel, rajeunie de nos jours par la conception du droit naturel à contenu progressif. En ce sens aussi, on pourrait soutenir que les règles impératives ont dépassé le stade coutumier pour atteindre un niveau plus stable qui est celui des principes généraux du droit international public"123.

60. Thus, the contemporary law of treaties itself, as attested by Article 60(5) of the 1969 and the 1986 Vienna Conventions, overcoming the precept of reciprocity in the implementation of treaties of a humanitarian character, reckons that the obligations enshrined therein are of ordre public, and may generate effects erga omnes. The overcoming of reciprocity in human rights protection has taken place amidst the constant search for an expansion of the ambit of protection (for the safeguard of an increasingly wider circle of individuals, in any circumstances), for achieving a higher degree of the protection due, and for the
gradual strengthening of the mechanisms of supervision, in the defense of common superior values.

5. Concluding Observations.

61. Last but not least, attention should also be drawn to the interaction of human rights treaties in the process of interpretation. Given the multiplicity of those treaties, it comes as little or no surprise that the interpretation and application of certain provisions of a given human rights treaty have at times been resorted to as orientation for the interpretation of corresponding provisions of another - usually newer - human rights treaty. The practice of international supervisory organs - including under the two regional, European and Inter-American, systems of protection - affords several examples of such interpretative interaction124.

62. Moreover, given the possible concurrent interpretation of equivalent provisions of two or more human rights treaties, there is room for the search of the most
favourable norm to the alleged victim. This test - primacy of the most favourable norm to the individual, - gathers express support in certain provisions of such human rights treaties such as Article 29(b) of the American Convention on Human Rights, and has found application in practice.

63. The essential motivation underlying the interpretation of human rights treaties has been, rather than to ensure the uniformity of international law in general and in all circumstances whatsoever, to respond effectively to the needs and imperatives of the international protection of human beings. In proceeding in this way, international supervisory organs - such as the two regional Human Rights Courts - have constructed a converging jurisprudence as to the special nature of human rights treaties and the implications and consequences ensuing therefrom. This has been largely due to the overriding identity of the object and purpose of those treaties. The reassuring result has been a uniform interpretation of the International Law of Human Rights. This, in turn, has contributed significantly to the development of international law in the present domain of protection.

64. Thus, a chapter of international law usually approached in the past from the outlook of State voluntarism, comes nowadays to be seen in a different light, under the influence of basic considerations of humanity. Although this chapter of international law, - the law of treaties, - has been opened to manifestations of the individual "will" of States, as from the issue of the treating-making power itself, - the fact cannot keep on being overlooked that basic considerations of humanity have marked their presence also in the law of treaties. As demonstration of this evolution, developments pertaining to the interpretation of treaties, reservations to treaties, denunciation of treaties, and termination and suspension of operation of treaties disclosed a certain preparedness to elaborate freely on areas such as those, so as to search for responses to the contemporary needs of the international community.

65. Like International Law in general, the law of treaties in particular is undergoing a historical process of humanization as well. It cannot pass unnoticed, as timely
recalled by Egon Schwelb three decades ago125, that the preambles themselves of the two Vienna Conventions on the Law of Treaties (of 1969 and 1986) contain an assertion of the principle of universal respect for, and observance of, human rights126. The treatymaking power is no longer an exclusive prerogative of States, as it used to be in the past; the 1986 [second] Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties came to address the treaty-making of international organizations, some of which devoted to causes of direct interest to human beings and humankind as a whole.

66. The interpretation of treaties has been considerably enriched by the methodology pursued by international supervisory organs of human rights treaties. Such interpretation has adjusted itself to the specificity of human rights treaties127. It has, moreover, favoured a harmonization of the standards of implementation of the
protected rights in the domestic legal order of the States Parties to those treaties128. The two international human rights Tribunals (the European and Inter-American Courts) have been engaged in a converging jurisprudential construction in respect of reservations to treaties to the effect of avoiding to deprive human rights treaties of their effet utile, thus preserving the mechanisms of protection of the human person established by them.

III. International Rule of Law: Non-Appearance and the Duty of Compliance.

67. Until the Inter-American Court's Judgments of 01.09.2001 dismissing Trinidad and Tobago's preliminary objections in the Hilaire, Constantine et allii, and Benjamin et allii cases (cf. supra), the respondent State appeared before the Court, having participated in the contentious proceedings and presented its arguments before the Court. In the Hilaire case, in particular, it appeared before the Court in the public hearing of 10 August 2000, wherein it submitted its views in an orderly and procedurally constructive way. After being notified of the Court's adverse decision, Trinidad and Tobago no longer appeared before the Court, neither in the proceedings on the merits in the aforementioned cases (joined), nor in the proceedings of the subsequent and present Caesar case.

68. Despite its non-appearance129, Trinidad and Tobago remains bound by the Court's Judgments in all these cases: though rendered after its denunciation of the
American Convention, they pertain to acts taken by the State before the denunciation, in accordance with the terms of Article 78 of the American Convention. Together with the subsequent Judgments on the merits and reparations, the Court's decisions remain all binding upon the respondent State, and an eventual failure of this latter to comply with the Court's Judgments on the merits and reparations in those previous cases and with the present Judgment in the Caesar case, would amount to an additional violation of the American Convention (Article 68), as well as of general international law (pacta sunt servanda), with all the juridical consequences attached thereto.

69. Any interpretation to the contrary, tending to "explain" or "justify" noncompliance with the Judgments, would amount to contempt of Court, and disclose a
lack of familiarity with the most elementary principles of international legal procedure A State may, of course, choose not to appear before the Court, but in doing so it ought to bear the consequences of such non-appearance, rendering itself unable to rebut the evidence produced130 and to defend itself. What a State is not entitled to do is to ignore a Judgment that is clearly binding upon it, as that would undermine the very foundations of international jurisdiction, which have required so much endeavour from past generations to be built and established in this part of the world.

70. Having always been a strong supporter of the cause of international justice, I feel obliged to state in the present Separate Opinion that international jurisdiction
cannot be left at the mercy of the caprice of governments, usually under the pressure of haphazard domestic factors, - and those who have no constraints to undermine it are to bear the historical responsibility for such deconstruction. I feel confident that Trinidad and Tobago will not come to this extreme.

71. Trinidad and Tobago seems to be aware of the temporal and material limitations of denunciation under Article 78 of the American Convention (supra), as it participated in proceedings before the Court afterwards, including a public hearing of 10 August 2000 in the Hilaire case, more than one year after its denunciation of the American Convention began to have effects (as from 26.05.1999). What is rather enigmatic is its subsequent and prolonged non-appearance - not to say "disappearance" - before the Court after its Judgments on preliminary objections (supra), adverse to it. Nonappearance does not at all pave the way for non-compliance. A State may choose not to appear before the Court, at any stage of the proceedings, at its own risk, but it cannot ignore the Court's Judgment without having its international responsibility thereby engaged.

72. Trinidad and Tobago's sudden non-appearance before the Court, - or rather, disappearance from it, - is certainly to be regretted. It does not foster the rule of law at international level, to say the least. If it is meant to be a prior notice of eventual noncompliance with decisions of the Court, then the respondent State has strong reasons for concern, as the Law would not stand on its side. Let us hope this will prove not to be the case. But were it to be so, Trinidad and Tobago would then stand outside the Law, thus incurring into an additional violation of the American Convention.

73. Although non-appearance has occurred from time to time in inter-State litigation (e.g., before the Permanent Court of International Justice [PCIJ] and the International Court of Justice [ICJ])131, there is no compelling reason why it should take place in proceedings in human rights cases, opposing States to individuals, the ostensibly weaker party. If by non-appearance the State is announcing eventual non-compliance with the decisions of the Tribunal, it should bear the juridical consequences of its attitude, - and the other States Parties should react to that, in the exercise of the collective guarantee underlying all human rights treaties. Non-appearance does not affect the condition of the State as a party to the case; whether it likes it or not, it remains the respondent State in the case, even in absentia.

74. Article 68(1) of the American Convention is clear in determining that "the States Parties to the Convention undertake to comply with the judgment of the Court in any case to which they are parties". Non-appearing States remain parties to the cases at issue. Their duty of compliance corresponds to a basic principle of the law on the international responsibility of the State, strongly supported by international case-law, whereby States ought to comply with their conventional obligations in good faith (pacta sunt servanda). It is somewhat surprising to witness that, as time goes by and the old ideal of the realization of international justice gains ground (as with, for example, the recent establishment of the International Criminal Court, pursuant to an original proposal by Trinidad and Tobago at the United Nations), some States remain resistant to the operation of the most perfected means of settlement of disputes at international level, that is, judicial settlement132 (as illustrated, ironically, by the posture of Trinidad and Tobago in the aforementioned cases in the inter-American human rights system).

76. The precedent - among others - set up by the United States, of "withdrawal" and non-appearance before the ICJ, after a Judgment adverse to it on preliminary objections (in 1984) in the Nicaragua versus United States case, would be a very bad example for Trinidad and Tobago to follow. On the occasion, the United States earned much criticism from distinct corners of the international community, including from some of its own most distinguished jurists (like the late Keith Highet133), for its disservice to the international rule of law. In the words of K. Highet, the strategy of non-appearance "may also backfire", and "may suffer a setback, once its absurdity and overall uselessness are correctly perceived. (...) The negative forces undermining the progressive development of international law - non-production, noncooperation and non-appearance - (...) will now be seen for what they are"134.

77. In the same line of thinking, it was further pointed out, in other commentaries, that the United States' defiant behaviour of withdrawing from that case and no longer appearing in its proceedings before the ICJ "appears not only injurious to the efficacy of the Court's compulsory jurisdiction under Article 36(2), but detrimental to the development of international lawfulness as well. Such lawfulness cannot develop as long as States are inclined to place themselves above the
law"135.

78. Is this the sad example that Trinidad and Tobago would really wish to follow? I could hardly believe it. How would that appear to the future generations of its own jurists? Expectations from the new generations of jurists are always high, - hoping that they will succeed to right the wrongs made by their predecessors, - while, on the other hand, politicians (also referred to rather elegantly as "decision-makers") look the same everywhere in the world, and there seem to be no compelling reasons to expect much from them.

79. Not only do they look the same everywhere, but they have further looked the same at all times. Already over three centuries before our era, in his Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle could hardly hide or dissimulate his concern as to what politicians might be thinking or what decisions were they about to take136. In the XIIIth. century, in his Treatise on the Law, Thomas Aquinas wondered whether the recta ratio could ever be apprehended by the power-holders137. It would be hard to deny that, with extremely rare exceptions, politicians, always and everywhere, have appeared much more engaged in gaining and retaining power (for power's sake), than in securing the observance of the human rights of those they govern or are supposed to represent.

80. The States which, in the history of international adjudication, have "withdrawn" from contentious proceedings instituted against them (particularly after an initial
decision of the Tribunal adverse to them), have adopted a "self-judging conduct", harmful to the international rule of law, and, ultimately, also to themselves, to their own reputation, as "A State which would be a judge in its own cause is an advocate pleading into a void from which no clear answer is returned"138.

81. Non-appearance is in fact foreseen in Article 53 of the Statute of the ICJ, its raison d'être being to secure that the Court carries out its functions whenever one of the parties fails to appear before it; the non-appearing State remains a party to the case, and remains fully bound by the decision rendered by the Court139 (as if it had appeared before the Court). This is what ensues also from Article 27 (on default procedure) of the current Rules of Procedure of the Inter-American Court, which likewise foresee non-appearance in the same understanding, and entitle the Inter- American Court, whenever a party fails to appear in or continue with a case, to take such measures, on its own motion, as may be necessary to complete the consideration of the case. Article 27 adds that when a party enters a case at a later stage of the proceedings, it shall take up the proceedings at that stage.

82. In most cases, non-appearance has been resorted to aiming at exerting pressure upon the complaining party and the Court, but experience shows that nonappearing States have hardly gained anything - except criticisms - from such harmful conduct140. Furthermore, it is to be kept always in mind that non-appearance and non- compliance are not synonymous at all; non-appearing - or "disappeared" - States are under the duty to comply with Judgments in absentia (pacta sunt servanda).

83. On this particular subject, the Institut de Droit International adopted a clarifying resolution141 in its session of Basel of 1991, in which it took into account the difficulties that non-appearance of a party may present to the other party and to the Court itself142. In its preamble, the resolution pondered inter alia that "the absence of a party is such as to hinder the regular conduct of the proceedings, and may affect the good administration of justice"143. The resolution recalled, in its operative part, the State's "duty to cooperate in the fulfilment of the Court's judicial functions" (Article 2), and added that "Each State entitled (...) to appear before the Court and with respect to which the Court is seized of a case is ipso facto (...) a party to the proceedings, regardless of whether it appears or not" (Article 1).

84. The resolution of the Institut further provided that, notwithstanding the nonappearance of a State, this latter remains "bound by any decision of the Court in that case, whether on jurisdiction, admissibility or the merits" (Article 4). And the resolution concluded that "a State's non-appearance before the Court is in itself no obstacle to the exercise by the Court of its functions" (Article 5). This is an accurate statement of the applicable law in cases of non-appearance, which by no means can be taken to lead to non-compliance, amounting to an additional violation of international law.

IV. The Expanding Material Content and Scope of Jus Cogens in Contemporary International Law.

85. May I conclude this Separate Opinion in the present Caesar case in a positive tone, with an expression of support for the present Judgment in absentia of the Inter- American Court, in respect particularly to two remaining aspects that I see it fit to dwell upon here. Firstly, the Court has expressly and rightly admitted in the present Caesar case that, in certain circumstances, the existence of a law (such as that of Corporal Punishment Act of Trinidad and Tobago), manifestly incompatible with the relevant provisions of the American Convention (Article 5(1) and (2)), may per se constitute - by its nature and effects - a violation of this latter144. In support of this view, may I refer to my arguments, to this effect, in my Dissenting Opinion in the El Amparo case, concerning Venezuela (Judgments on reparations, of 14.09.1996), as well as in my Dissenting Opinion in the Caballero Delgado and Santana case, pertaining to Colombia (Judgment on reparations, of 29.01.1997), - which I do not find it necessary to reiterate literally herein.

86. Secondly, and most importantly, in the present Judgment in the Caesar case, the Court has rightly acknowledged that the prohibition of torture as well as of other cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment, has entered into the domain of jus cogens. Corporal punishment, such as the one examined in the cas d'espèce, is per se in breach of the Convention (Article 5(1) and (2)) and of peremptory norms of international law (paragraphs 70, 88 and 100). In several of my Individual Opinions presented in this Court, I have drawn attention to the relevance of the expanding material content and scope of jus cogens. The present Judgment is inserted into this reassuringly evolutive jurisprudential construction.

87. Thus, in its historical Advisory Opinion n. 18 on The Juridical Condition and the Rights of the Undocumented Migrants (of 17.09.2003), the Inter-American Court significantly held that the aforementioned fundamental principle of equality and nondiscrimination, in the present stage of evolution of International Law, "has entered into the domain of the jus cogens"; on such principle, which "permeates every legal order", - the Court correctly added, - "rests the whole juridical structure of the national and international public order"145. The Court, moreover, referred to the evolution of the concept of jus cogens, transcending the ambit of both the law of treaties and of the law of the international responsibility of the State, so as to reach general international law and the very foundations of the international legal order146.

88. In support of this view, in my Concurring Opinion in that pronouncement of the Court (Advisory Opinion n. 18), after summarizing the history of the entry of jus cogens into the conceptual universe of international law, I maintained that "The emergence and assertion of jus cogens in contemporary International Law fulfil the necessity of a minimum of verticalization in the international legal order, erected upon pillars in which the juridical and the ethical are merged. (...)

On my part, I have always sustained that it is an ineluctable consequence of the affirmation and the very existence of peremptory norms of International Law their not being limited to the conventional norms, to the law of treaties, and their being extended to every and any juridical act147. Recent developments point out in the same sense, that is, that the domain of the jus cogens, beyond the law of treaties, encompasses likewise general international law148. Moreover, the jus cogens, in my understanding, is an open category, which expands itself to the extent that the universal juridical conscience (material source of all Law) awakens for the necessity to protect the rights inherent to each human being in every and any situation".

To the international objective responsibility of the States corresponds necessarily the notion of objective illegality (one of the elements underlying the concept of jus cogens). In our days, no one would dare to deny the objective illegality of acts of genocide149, of systematic practices of torture, of summary and extra-legal executions, and of forced disappearance of persons, - practices which represent crimes against humanity, - condemned by the universal juridical conscience150, parallel to the application of treaties. Already in its Advisory Opinion of 1951 on the Reservations to the Convention against Genocide, the International Court of Justice pointed out that the humanitarian principles underlying that Convention were recognizedly `binding on States, even without any conventional obligation'.
(...) In sum and conclusion on the point under examination, the emergence and assertion of jus cogens evoke the notions of international public order and of a hierarchy of legal norms, as well as the prevalence of the jus necessarium over the jus voluntarium; jus cogens presents itself as the juridical expression of the very
international community as a whole, which, at last, takes conscience of itself, and of the fundamental principles and values which guide it"151.

89. In the same line of reasoning, in my Separate Opinion in the case of the Massacre of Plan de Sánchez case, concerning Guatemala (Judgment of 29.04.2004), I saw it fit to insist on the point that "The concept itself of jus cogens, in my understanding, transcends the ambit of both the law of treaties152 and the law on the
international responsibility of the States153, so as to encompass general international law and the very foundations of the international legal order"154.

90. And in my Separate Opinion in the Tibi versus Ecuador case (Judgment of 07.09.2004), I allowed myself to add that jus cogens, besides its horizontal dimension whereby it has a bearing upon the very foundations of international law, also expands itself in "a vertical dimension, of the interaction of the international and national legal orders in the present domain of protection. The effect of jus cogens, in this second (vertical) plane, is in the sense of invalidating every and any legislative, administrative or judicial measure which, at the level of the domestic law of the States, attempts to authorize or tolerate torture" (par. 32).

91. Furthermore, in its Judgment of 08.07.2004 in the Gómez Paquiyauri versus Peru case, the Inter-American Court expressly admitted that, in our days, an
international juridical regime has been formed of absolute prohibition of all forms of torture and of extrajudicial executions, and that such prohibition belongs today to the domain of international jus cogens (pars. 115-116 and 131)155. In my Separate Opinion in that case I pondered that such acknowledgement of jus cogens, in constant expansion, in turn, "reveals precisely the reassuring opening of contemporary international law to superior and fundamental values", pointing towards the emergence of a truly universal international law (par. 44). I reaffirmed this understanding, of an absolute prohibition, of jus cogens, of torture, in any circumstance, in my Separate Opinion (par. 26) in the Tibi versus Ecuador case (Judgment of 07.09.2004).

92. The Judgment this Court has just adopted in the present Caesar versus Trinidad and Tobago fits squarely into its jurisprudence constante on the evolutive interpretation of jus cogens itself. The Court, here, quite rightly takes a step forward, in upholding the absolute prohibition, proper to the domain of jus cogens, of torture as well as any other cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment. It is relevant to keep on identifying the expanding material content and scope of jus cogens, as the Inter-American Court has been doing in the last years. The Inter-American Court has probably done for such identification of the expansion of jus cogens more than any other contemporary international tribunal. It is important that it continues doing so, in the gradual construction, at this beginning of the XXIst. century, of a new jus gentium, the international law for humankind.

Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade
Judge
Pablo Saavedra-Alessandri
Secretary


CASO CAESAR VS TRINIDAD Y TOBAGO
VOTO RAZONADO
JUEZ MANUEL E. VENTURA ROBLES

La necesidad de establecer en la Organización de los Estados Americanos un grupo de trabajo permanente dedicado a supervisar el cumplimiento, por parte de los Estados Partes en la Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos, de las sentencias y medidas provisionales que dicta la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos.

I Introducción.

II Las propuestas hechas por el Consejo Interamericano de Jurisconsultos, los Estados de Chile y Uruguay y la Comisión Interamericana de Derechos Humanos en sus proyectos de Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos sobre el actual texto del artículo 65 de la misma.

III La Conferencia Especializada Interamericana sobre Derechos Humanos de 1969.

IV La propuesta de solución presentada por la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos a los órganos pertinentes de la OEA en relación con la implementación del artículo 65 de la Convención Americana

V La solicitud de interpretación de sentencia en el caso Baena Ricardo y otros presentada por el Estado de Panamá.

VI Como funciona actualmente el sistema en la Comisión de Asuntos Jurídicos y Políticos del Consejo Permanente de la OEA y la necesidad de modificarlo.

VII Las consecuencias de la laguna existente en la Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos para dar efecto útil al artículo 65 de la misma.

VIII Propuesta de solución.

IX Conclusiones.

I Introducción

1. Al concurrir con mi voto, junto con el de mis colegas jueces, para determinar la responsabilidad internacional del Estado de Trinidad y Tobago (en adelante “el Estado” o “Trinidad y Tobago”) por violaciones a la Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos (en adelante “la Convención” o “la Convención Americana”) en el caso Caesar, me han surgido preocupaciones muy puntuales acerca de la actitud de este Estado Miembro de la Organización de los Estados Americanos (en adelante “la OEA” o “la Organización”) sobre el cumplimiento de sus obligaciones internacionales, en relación con las funciones que cumplen la Comisión y la Corte Interamericanas de Derechos Humanos (en adelante “la Comisión” o “la Comisión Interamericana” y “la Corte” o “la Corte Interamericana”) dentro del sistema interamericano de protección de los derechos humanos. Iguales preocupaciones tuve como Secretario del Tribunal entre los años 2000 y 2003 durante toda la tramitación de los casos Hilaire, Constantine, Benjamin y otros contra el mismo Estado, las cuales ahora puedo explicitar en mi condición de Juez en el presente caso.

2. Cabe recordar, antes que nada, que Trinidad y Tobago depositó su instrumento de ratificación de la Convención Americana el 28 de mayo de 1991, en la Secretaría General de la OEA, y que ese mismo día reconoció la competencia contenciosa de la Corte. Posteriormente, de acuerdo con el artículo 78 de la Convención Americana, el Estado procedió a denunciar la misma, denuncia que surtió efecto un año más tarde, el 26 de mayo de 1999. Consecuentemente, la Corte se declaró competente, en su momento, para conocer los casos Hilaire, Constantine, Benjamin y otros, así como el presente caso de Winston Caesar, debido a que los hechos que se refieren a todos estos casos ocurrieron con anterioridad a la entrada en vigor de la denuncia hecha por el Estado.

3. Es de hacer notar que si bien el Estado, entre los años 1997 y 2000, presentó escritos a la Comisión Interamericana en relación con los casos Hilaire, Constantine, Benjamin y otros, en el presente caso Caesar, Trinidad y Tobago, con posterioridad a la presentación de la denuncia en la Comisión el 13 de mayo de 1999, no presentó ante este órgano de protección convencional ningún escrito con observaciones sobre la admisibilidad de la misma, pese a las peticiones de la Comisión en ese sentido, ni tampoco presentó la información que la Comisión le solicitó durante la tramitación del fondo del caso. El 10 de octubre de 2001 la Comisión Interamericana aprobó el Informe de Admisibilidad No. 88/01 y, el 10 de octubre de 2002, adoptó el Informe sobre el Fondo No. 35/02. Finalmente el 16 de febrero de 2003, la Comisión sometió el caso a consideración de la Corte.

4. Debe señalarse también que si bien Trinidad y Tobago compareció ante la Corte en la tramitación inicial de los casos Hilaire, Constantine, Benjamin y otros y presentó excepciones preliminares argumentando que la Corte carecía de competencia para conocer esos casos, una vez que el Tribunal rechazó las excepciones preliminares el 1 de septiembre de 2001156 y asumió jurisdicción, el Estado, en cuanto al procedimiento del fondo ante la Corte, no contestó las demandas, no nombró representantes ni tampoco designó Juez ad hoc. Lo mismo ha sucedido durante la tramitación del fondo del caso Caesar ante la Corte Interamericana.

5. Con posterioridad a que la Corte dictó sentencia de fondo y reparaciones en los tres casos citados, el 21 de junio de 2002157, el Estado no ha proveído a la Corte con información alguna sobre el cumplimiento de la sentencia pese a la gravedad de los temas involucrados, entre ellos el derecho a la vida. Esto obligó al Tribunal en su Informe Anual correspondiente al año 2003, de acuerdo con el artículo 65 de la Convención Americana, a comunicar a la Asamblea General que:

En el caso “Hilaire, Constantine, Benjamin y otros vs. Trinidad y Tobago”, el Estado no ha cumplido con su deber de informar a la Corte sobre las medidas
que haya adoptado para dar cumplimiento efectivo a lo ordenado por el Tribunal en su sentencia de fondo y reparaciones del presente caso. Al respecto, la Corte insta a la Asamblea General de la OEA que exhorte al Estado de Trinidad y Tobago para que informe al Tribunal sobre las medidas adoptadas para dar cumplimiento con su sentencia158. Esta comunicación de la Corte a la Asamblea General no produjo efecto alguno, por las razones que se darán más adelante.

6. Aún más, el derecho a la vida de las víctimas de los casos mencionados, condenados a pena de muerte, fue protegido mediante medidas provisionales por la Corte y, pese a esto, el Estado procedió a ejecutar a dos de ellos, los señores Joey Ramiah y Anthony Briggs, en abierto desacato a lo ordenado por la Corte. Esto ocurrió el 4 de junio y 28 de julio de 1999, respectivamente, por lo que la Corte, en su Informe Anual correspondiente al año 1999, comunicó a la Asamblea General, también sin éxito alguno, lo siguiente:

El 24 de mayo de 1999 la Corte envió una nota al Presidente del Consejo Permanente de la Organización de los Estados Americanos, señor Julio César
Araoz, refiriéndose al incumplimiento de Trinidad y Tobago de las resoluciones emitidas por la Corte Interamericana. Debido a que el incumplimiento, señalado en el Informe Anual de la Corte correspondiente al año 1998, no había sido incorporado en la parte resolutiva de las recomendaciones emitidas por la Comisión de Asuntos Jurídicos y Políticos de la Organización a la Asamblea General, la Corte solicitó al Presidente del Consejo Permanente incluir un párrafo resolutivo en el proyecto de resolución a ser sometido a la Asamblea General en el cual se exhortara al Estado a dar cumplimiento a lo ordenado por la Corte con respecto de las medidas provisionales en el caso James y otros. La Corte también solicitó al Presidente del Consejo Permanente someter la presente nota a la sesión que dicho Consejo celebraría el día 26 de mayo siguiente.

El 25 de mayo de 1999 la Corte envió una segunda nota al Presidente del Consejo Permanente de la OEA, acusando recibo de su nota del día anterior, y
reiterándole la necesidad de incluir un párrafo resolutivo sobre el incumplimiento de los mandatos del Tribunal por parte de Trinidad y Tobago para que el mismo fuera conocido y decidido en el seno del Consejo Permanente de la OEA.

El 28 de mayo de 1999 la Corte envió una nota al Secretario General de la OEA, señor César Gaviria, en la cual se refirió al incumplimiento, por parte de
Trinidad y Tobago, de las resoluciones emitidas por la Corte. Debido a que dicho incumplimiento no había sido incorporado en la parte resolutiva del proyecto de resolución por la Comisión de Asuntos Jurídicos y Políticos ni por el Consejo Permanente de la Organización, la Corte solicitó al Secretario General poner dicha nota “en conocimiento de las autoridades del Vigésimo Noveno Período Ordinario de Sesiones de la Asamblea General de la OEA”. Durante la presentación del Informe Anual de la Corte ante el Consejo Permanente de la OEA, el Presidente de la Corte dejó constancia del incumplimiento, por parte del Estado de Trinidad y Tobago, de varias resoluciones de la Corte en materia de medidas provisionales en el caso James y otros, en trámite ante la Comisión Interamericana.
El 4 de junio y el 28 de julio de 1999 el Estado ejecutó a los señores Joey Ramiah y Anthony Briggs, respectivamente, ambos beneficiarios de las medidas provisionales ordenadas por la Corte159.

En el Informe del año anterior, 1998, debido a la falta de cooperación del Estado en la implementación de las ya citadas medidas provisionales en los casos Hilaire, Constantine, Benjamin y otros, la Corte se vió en la necesidad de informar a la Asamblea General de la OEA lo siguiente:

El 22 de mayo de 1998 la Comisión Interamericana, de acuerdo con el artículo 63.2 de la Convención Americana y 25 del Reglamento de la Corte, presentó a la Corte Interamericana una solicitud de adopción de medidas provisionales en favor de cinco personas que se encuentran bajo la jurisdicción del Estado de Trinidad y Tobago (Wenceslaus James, Anthony Briggs, Anderson Noel, Anthony Garcia y Christopher Bethel) y cuyos casos se encuentran en consideración de la Comisión.El 14 de junio de 1998, la Corte ratificó la resolución del Presidente del 27 de mayo de 1998, en la cual había adoptado medidas urgentes para preservar la vida de dichas personas debido a que su ejecución dejaría sin objeto cualquier decisión a tomar en relación con estas medidas.

Posteriormente, la Comisión presentó tres solicitudes de ampliación de las medidas adoptadas en este caso. Por medio de resoluciones de 29 de junio,
13 de julio y 22 de julio de 1998, dictadas, respectivamente, en favor de los señores Darrin Roger Thomas, Haniff Hilaire y Denny Baptiste, el Presidente
requirió al Estado adoptar las medidas necesarias para preservar la vida e integridad de dichas personas.

La Corte convocó al Estado de Trinidad y Tobago y a la Comisión a una audiencia pública que celebraría en su sede el 28 de agosto de 1998. El 11 y 27 de dichos mes y año, el Estado de Trinidad y Tobago comunicó a la Corte que no asistiría a la audiencia y que no aceptaría responsabilidad alguna como consecuencia de la falta de la Comisión Interamericana para organizar sus procedimientos en relación con casos sometidos a ella de personas procesadas a pena de muerte dentro de los plazos establecidos en el derecho interno de Trinidad y Tobago.

El 19 de agosto el Presidente envió una nota al Primer Ministro del Estado de Trinidad y Tobago en la que indicó la preocupación de la Corte por la negativa
del Estado a participar en la audiencia dicha.

El 28 de agosto de 1998 la Corte celebró en su sede la audiencia pública y después de escuchar las observaciones de la Comisión, el 29 de agosto de 1998 dictó una Resolución ratificando las decisiones de su Presidente de 29 de junio, 13 de julio y 22 de julio de 1998 y solicitó a Trinidad y Tobago que tomara todas las medidas necesarias para preservar la vida e integridad física de Wenceslaus James, Anthony Briggs, Anderson Noel, Anthony Garcia, Christopher Bethel, Darrin Roger Thomas, Haniff Hilaire y Denny Baptiste, así como no obstruir el procedimiento de sus casos ante el sistema interamericano. Dicha resolución fue notificada al Estado.

El 1 de septiembre de 1998, el Estado informó que, en el futuro, no se referiría más a este asunto ni con la Corte ni con la Comisión. A la fecha de redacción del presente informe, el Estado no ha presentado ninguno de los informes periódicos que le fueron requeridos por la Corte en su resolución de 29 de agosto de 1998, pese a constantes solicitudes del Tribunal en este sentido160.

La Corte ha constatado la negativa del Estado a reconocer la obligatoriedad de sus decisiones en este asunto y, en lo particular, su no comparecencia ante el Tribunal pese a haber sido debidamente convocado y la falta de cumplimiento de lo resuelto con respecto a los informes periódicos. De conformidad con el artículo 65 de la Convención Americana, la Corte informa a la Asamblea General de la Organización de los Estados Americanos que la República de Trinidad y Tobago, Estado Parte en la Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos, no ha dado cumplimiento a sus decisiones respecto de las medidas provisionales adoptadas en el caso James y otros, por lo que solicita que la Asamblea General inste a la República de Trinidad y Tobago a cumplir con las resoluciones de la Corte. También la Corte desea dejar constancia de su preocupación debido a la denuncia de la Convención Americana que hiciera Trinidad y Tobago y de la
cual notificó a la Secretaría General el 26 de mayo de 1998. Esa decisión, que no tiene precedentes en la historia del sistema interamericano de protección
de derechos humanos, no surte efectos en cuanto al cumplimiento de las medidas provisionales anteriormente examinadas, pues el artículo 78.2 de la Convención Americana dispone:
… Dicha denuncia no tendrá por efecto desligar al Estado parte interesado de las obligaciones contenidas en esta Convención en lo que concierne a todo hecho que, pudiendo constituir una violación de esas obligaciones, haya sido cumplido por él anteriormente a la fecha en la cual la denuncia produce efecto. Finalmente, la Corte considera que, si bien la denuncia de un instrumento internacional es un derecho de los Estados Partes en él, en los tratados de derechos humanos, debido a su especial naturaleza, esa denuncia afecta como un todo al sistema internacional o regional de derechos humanos de que se trate, lo cual, en este caso particular, justifica una gestión de parte de la Asamblea General de la Organización tendiente a obtener que Trinidad y Tobago reconsidere dicha decisión161.

No hubo ningún pronunciamiento de la Asamblea General al respecto.

7. La pregunta que cabe hacerse es: ¿cómo es posible que esto suceda si en la Carta de la OEA, en su capítulo II denominado Principios, en su artículo 3.L, se establece que “Los Estados Americanos proclaman los derechos fundamentales de la persona humana sin hacer distinción de raza, nacionalidad, credo o sexo”?162 Además, los Jefes de Estado y de Gobierno de las Américas, en la Declaración de la Ciudad de Québec emitida en el año 2001163, expresaron que su “compromiso de asegurar el pleno respeto a los derechos humanos y las libertades fundamentales se basa en principios y en convicciones compartidos”, y apoyaron, lo mismo que ha hecho la Asamblea General en reiteradas ocasiones, “el fortalecimiento y perfeccionamiento de la eficacia del sistema interamericano de derechos humanos, que incluye la Comisión Interamericana de Derechos Humanos y la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos”164.

8. Pero, además, cabe preguntarse también ¿por qué razón el artículo 65 de la Convención Americana, que señala la obligación de la Corte de informar a la Asamblea General de la OEA de los incumplimientos de sentencias, no incluyó un procedimiento y una institución dentro de la organización, que tuviera la responsabilidad de implementar tal disposición?

9. La pertinencia de estas preguntas es aún mayor si, como se ha debidamente fundamentado, el texto de la Convención Americana se basó, en muchos aspectos, en el del Convenio [Europeo] para la Protección de los Derechos Humanos y de las Libertades Fundamentales de 1950, que en su artículo 46 dispone lo siguiente: Fuerza obligatoria y ejecución de las sentencias

1 Las Altas partes Contratantes se comprometen a acatar las sentencias definitivas del Tribunal en los litigios que sean partes.

2 La sentencia definitiva del Tribunal será transmitida al Comité de Ministros, que velará por su ejecución.

Pero, por su parte, el texto del artículo 65 de la Convención Americana únicamente señala: La Corte someterá a la consideración de la Asamblea General de la
Organización en cada período ordinario de sesiones un informe sobre su labor en el año anterior. De manera especial y con las recomendaciones pertinentes, señalará los casos en que un Estado no haya dado cumplimiento a sus fallos.

La comparación de ambos textos pone en evidencia que en el sistema europeo de derechos humanos existe un órgano colegiado de carácter político, el Comité de Ministros, encargado de velar por la ejecución de las sentencias, mientras que en el sistema interamericano no existe tal órgano, por lo que la propia Corte, en uso de los poderes inherentes a su jurisdicción, ha tenido que asumir la tarea de verificar el cumplimiento de las sentencias para poder determinar si existe o no un incumplimiento con el fin de informar, al tenor del artículo 65 de la Convención Americana, de lo sucedido a la Asamblea General. Surge entonces una nueva pregunta porque, luego de presentado el informe por la Corte, como ha acontecido en una ocasión, la Asamblea General exhortó al Estado de Suriname a brindar al Tribunal la información requerida165, hecho que posteriormente permitió archivar los casos Aloeboetoe y otros y Gangaram Panday.

Y, en el caso de Trinidad y Tobago, eso no sucedió. La pregunta es: ¿no existe una evidente laguna en la Convención Americana y, concretamente, en el texto del artículo 65? ¿Cómo se puede solventar esa situación que, como se verá más adelante, está afectando seriamente la labor de la Comisión, de la Corte y del sistema interamericano de protección de los derechos humanos como un todo?

Para responder a esta pregunta se deben investigar los antecedentes y los trabajos preparatorios de la Convención Americana en relación con su artículo 65.

10. La preocupación que tengo en relación con la actitud sobre el cumplimiento de la sentencia sobre el fondo y reparaciones en el caso Hilaire, Constantine, Benjamin y otros por parte del Estado de Trinidad y Tobago y la que eventualmente pudiera asumir con la sentencia que la Corte ha dictado en el presente caso Caesar, radica en que, en términos generales, la actitud de los Estados Partes acerca del cumplimiento de las sentencias y medidas provisionales ha sido ejemplar. Además, es precisamente la ausencia de un foro político donde se analizan los muchos cumplimientos parciales que han habido, en presencia de los representantes del Estado, de las víctimas y de la Comisión, lo que considero no ha permitido el avance, en mucho casos, en algunos de los aspectos del cumplimiento de las sentencias que ha dictado la Corte. Un informe de la Corte de la naturaleza del apuntado posiblemente permitirá encontrar soluciones a nivel de un grupo de trabajo y, eventualmente poder cerrar los casos que no se han podido borrar de la lista de asuntos pendientes por mucho tiempo, como se verá más adelante. Esta solución posiblemente sea el camino correcto para que no se repita lo ocurrido en el caso Hilaire, Constantine, Benjamin y otros. Este es un precedente que no debe repetirse. La OEA es un foro fundamentalmente político y la defensa de los derechos humanos es un tema que debe abordarse por los Estados miembros con valentía y franqueza. Soslayar la discusión de estos temas no permite que la Organización pueda cumplir con uno de sus fines primordiales, de acuerdo con la propia Carta de la OEA.

II Las propuestas hechas por el Consejo Interamericano de Jurisconsultos, los Estados de Chile y Uruguay y la Comisión Interamericana de Derechos Humanos
en sus proyectos de Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos sobre el actual texto del artículo 65 de la misma.

11. El primer antecedente de la Convención Americana al que cabe hacer referencia, es el “Proyecto de Convención sobre Derechos Humanos” preparado por el Consejo Interamericano de Jurisconsultos en el año 1959 por solicitud de la Quinta Reunión de Consulta de Ministros de Relaciones Exteriores, celebrada en Santiago de Chile ese mismo año. En el texto de dicho proyecto se encuentra el primer antecedente del actual artículo 65 de la Convención Americana, ya que en su artículo 80 disponía lo siguiente: El fallo de la Corte será transmitido al Consejo de la Organización de los Estados Americanos166.

12. Correspondió a la Segunda Conferencia Interamericana Extraordinaria, celebrada en Río de Janeiro en noviembre de 1965, considerar el proyecto de Convención elaborado por el Consejo Interamericano de Jurisconsultos, junto con dos proyectos adicionales presentados por los gobiernos de Chile y Uruguay, respectivamente. En el proyecto de “Convención sobre Derechos Humanos” elaborado por el Gobierno de Chile, se retoma la norma del proyecto anterior, ya que en el artículo 72 se expresa que: Copia de la sentencia será entregada a a las partes interesadas y al Consejo de la Organización de Estados Americanos167.

En el “Proyecto de Convención sobre Derechos Humanos” presentado por Uruguay, existen ya disposiciones más precisas y similares al actual artículo 65 de la Convención Americana. El artículo 85 del mencionado proyecto dice textualmente a la letra:

1. El fallo de la Corte será transmitido el Consejo de la Organización de los Estados Americanos y a todos los Estados que ratifiquen la presente Convención.

2. La Corte hará saber al Consejo de la Organización de los Estados Americanos los casos en que su fallo no se haya ejecutado168. Cabe recordar aquí que no es sino hasta 1970 que entra en vigor la Carta de la OEA reformada por el Protocolo de Buenos Aires, que establece la Asamblea General como órgano máximo de la Organización, y que estos proyectos se prepararon antes de 1970, por lo que solamente hacen referencia al “Consejo de la Organización”, hoy Consejo Permanente de la OEA.

13. La Segunda Conferencia Interamericana Extraordinaria resuelve remitir los tres proyectos antes citados así como las actas de los debates registrados en ella sobre la materia al Consejo de la OEA, para que éste, escuchando el parecer de la Comisión Interamericana y de otros órganos y entidades que estimara conveniente, le introdujera las enmiendas que considerara convenientes al Proyecto del Consejo Interamericano de Jurisconsultos. Finalmente, el 18 de mayo de 1966, el Consejo de la OEA remitió a la Comisión Interamericana el mencionado proyecto, así como los de Chile y Uruguay, para que le comunicara su opinión y le hiciera las recomendaciones pertinentes. La Comisión elaboró dos dictámenes, que fueron enviados al Consejo de la Organización el 4 de noviembre de 1966 y el 10 de abril de 1967, respectivamente. El Consejo de la Organización tomó conocimiento de los documentos remitiéndolos, como es usual, a la Comisión de Asuntos Jurídicos y Políticos (en adelante la “CAJP”). En la consideración de estos temas se suscitaron varias importantes discusiones y consultas a los Estados en relación con la aprobación, en diciembre de 1966, de los Pactos de Derechos Humanos de las Naciones Unidas, asuntos que fueron puestos en conocimiento del Consejo de la OEA, el que incluso formuló muchas consultas a los Estados Miembros, hasta que el Consejo de la Organización, el 12 de junio de 1968, aprobó una Resolución (OEA/Ser.G/IV/C-i-837 rev 3)169 mediante la cual solicitó a la Comisión Interamericana que redactara un texto revisado y completo de anteproyecto de Convención, para cuyo fin ésta celebró un Período Extraordinario de Sesiones el 1 y 2 de junio de 1968. La Comisión transmitió al Consejo de la Organización el anteproyecto de Convención el 18 de julio de 1968, el cual adoptó dicho anteproyecto de Convención como documento de trabajo de la Conferencia Especializada Interamericana sobre Derechos Humanos, incluyendo las observaciones y enmiendas formuladas por los Estados Miembros170.

14. En el “Proyecto de Convención Interamericana sobre Protección de Derechos Humanos” elaborado por la Comisión Interamericana hubo un retroceso en relación con el texto de la propuesta uruguaya, ya que se volvió a la anterior propuesta del Consejo Interamericano de Jurisconsultos y de Chile. En efecto el artículo 57 de proyecto señala que:

El fallo de la Corte será transmitido al Consejo de la Organización de los Estados Americanos171.

III La Conferencia Especializada Interamericana sobre Derechos Humanos de 1969

15. Es finalmente en la Conferencia Especializada Interamericana sobre Derechos Humanos, que se celebró en San José, Costa Rica, del 7 al 22 de noviembre de 1969, cuando se suscribe la Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos y, consecuentemente, se aprueba el texto actual, de lo que en el proyecto de la Comisión era el artículo 57, que se convierte en el actual párrafo 69. Es aquí precisamente, cuando surge un artículo nuevo, que es el actual 65 de la Convención Americana.

16. En la publicación oficial que hace la OEA de las Actas y Documentos de la Conferencia Especializada Interamericana sobre Derechos Humanos172, se encuentra el Informe del Relator de la Comisión II, el señor Robert J. Redington de los Estados Unidos de América, que versa sobre “Órganos de Protección y Disposiciones Generales”. En la parte pertinente se lee lo siguiente:

El Artículo 66, que es nuevo, establece que la Corte someterá un informe sobre sus trabajos a la Asamblea General de la Organización en su reunión anual, de conformidad con lo dispuesto en el Artículo 52 de la Carta de la Organización reformada por el Protocolo de Buenos Aires. Además, el Artículo 66 establece que la Corte podrá incluir en su informe aquellos casos en los cuales un Estado no hubiere dado cumplimiento a sus fallos, y formular las recomendaciones que considere apropiadas.

El Artículo 70 (correspondiente con el artículo 57 del Proyecto) especifica que el fallo debe ser comunicado a las partes en el caso y a los Estados Partes en
la Convención. Se eliminó la referencia a que el fallo debería comunicarse al Consejo de la Organización173.

17. La solución que se encontró, como claramente se deduce de las citas anteriores, fue dejar en el artículo 70 la disposición de que el fallo de la Corte debe ser comunicado a las partes en el caso y a los Estados Partes en la Convención y, como consecuencia de la próxima entrada en vigor de la Carta de la Organización reformada por el Protocolo de Buenos Aires, que establece la modalidad de celebrar Asambleas Generales anuales, se elimina la parte referente a que el fallo debería comunicarse al Consejo de la Organización. Por la misma razón antes apuntada, se crea un nuevo párrafo, el 66, que establece que la Corte deberá presentar un informe anual a la Asamblea General de la OEA, en el que comunicará a ésta aquellos casos en los cuales un Estado no hubiere dado cumplimiento a
sus sentencias y formularía las recomendaciones pertinentes. Consecuentemente, los nuevos párrafos se leen textualmente así:

Artículo 66
La Corte someterá a la consideración de la Asamblea General de la Organización en cada período ordinario de sesiones un informe sobre su labor

en el año anterior. De manera especial y con las recomendaciones pertinentes, señalará los casos en que un Estado no haya dado cumplimiento a sus fallos.

Artículo 70
El fallo de la Corte será notificado a las partes en el caso y transmitido a los Estados Partes en la Convención174.

18. En la Tercera Sesión Plenaria, celebrada el 21 de noviembre de 1969, la Conferencia aprobó el texto de ambos artículos, ya convertidos en los actuales artículos 65 y 69 de la Convención175. En el texto final de la Convención Americana, denominada también Pacto de San José de Costa Rica, según aparece en el Doc. 65 Rev. 1 Corr. 2 de 7 de enero de 1970176, aparecen los dos textos definitivos con el numeral actual, como se lee a continuación:

Artículo 65
La Corte someterá a la consideración de la Asamblea General de la Organización en cada período ordinario de sesiones un informe sobre su labor en el año anterior. De manera especial y con las recomendaciones pertinentes, señalará los casos en que un Estado no haya dado cumplimiento a sus fallos.

Artículo 69
El fallo de la Corte será notificado a las partes en el caso y transmitido a los Estados Partes en la Convención177.

IV La propuesta de solución presentada por la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos a los Órganos Pertinentes de la OEA en relación con la implementación del artículo 65 de la Convención Americana.

19. Sobre este tema cabe señalar que el 5 de abril de 2001, el entonces Presidente de la Corte Interamericana, Juez Antônio A. Cançado Trindade, en el marco del diálogo que se seguía en la Comisión de Asuntos Jurídicos y Políticos del Consejo Permanente de la OEA sobre el fortalecimiento del sistema interamericano de protección de los derechos humanos, manifestó que:

88. Me permito renovar, es esta ocasión ante la CAJP, la confianza que deposita la Corte Interamericana en los Estados Partes como garantes de la Convención Americana. Los Estados Partes asumen, cada uno individualmente, el deber de cumplir las decisiones de la Corte, como lo establece el artículo 68 de la Convención, en aplicación del principio pacta sunt servanda, y por tratarse, además, de una obligación de su propio derecho interno. Los Estados Partes igualmente asumen, en conjunto, la obligación de velar por la integridad de la Convención Americana, como garantes de la misma. La supervisión de la fiel ejecución de las sentencias de la Corte es una tarea que recae sobre el conjunto de los Estados Partes en la Convención178.

Esto lo manifestó el Presidente de la Corte porque en esa misma exposición, al referirse al contenido de un eventual Protocolo de Reformas a la Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos para Fortalecer su Mecanismo de Protección, había expuesto en relación con el tema que nos ocupa que:

60. Para asegurar el monitoreo continuo del fiel cumplimiento de todas las obligaciones convencionales de protección, y en particular de los fallos de la Corte, se debe, a mi juicio, acrecentar, al final del artículo 65 de la Convención la siguiente frase:
- “La Asamblea General los remitirá al Consejo Permanente, para estudiar la materia y rendir un informe, para que la Asamblea General delibere al respecto”179.

De ese modo, se suple una laguna en cuanto a un mecanismo, a operar en base permanente (y no solamente una vez por año ante la Asamblea General
de la OEA), para supervisar la fiel ejecución, por los Estados Partes demandados, de las sentencias de la Corte.

61. En la misma línea de pensamiento, y con el mismo fin de asegurar el fiel cumplimiento de las sentencias de la Corte, en el plano del derecho interno de los Estados Partes, se debe agregar al final del artículo 68 de la Convención, un tercer párrafo, en los siguientes términos:
- “En caso de que dicho procedimiento interno todavía no exista, los Estados Partes se comprometen a establecerlo, en conformidad con las obligaciones generales estipuladas en los artículos 1(1) y 2 de esta Convención”180.

Posteriormente, el 17 de abril de 2002, al dirigirse al Consejo Permanente de la OEA, recordó que:

11. Los Estados Partes en la Convención igualmente asumen, en conjunto, la obligación de velar por la integridad de la Convención Americana, como garantes de la misma. Al crear obligaciones para los Estados Partes vis-à-vis todos los seres humanos bajo sus respectivas jurisdicciones, la Convención Americana requiere el ejercicio de la garantía colectiva para la plena realización de su objeto y fin. La Corte Interamericana está convencida de que, mediante el ejercicio permanente de dicha garantía colectiva, se contribuirá al fortalecimiento del mecanismo de protección de la Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos, en este inicio del siglo XXI.

12. La supervisión -en el ejercicio de la garantía colectiva- de la fiel ejecución de las sentencias y decisiones de la Corte es una tarea que recae sobre el conjunto de los Estados Partes en la Convención. En mi Informe del 05 de abril de 2001 rendido en este mismo "Salón Bolívar", avancé propuestas para asegurar el monitoreo continuo del fiel cumplimiento de todas las obligaciones convencionales de protección, -y en particular de las sentencias de la Corte Interamericana,- abarcando medidas tanto de prevención como de seguimiento.

13. Me permití sugerir, además, que, en un eventual futuro Proyecto de Protocolo a la Convención Americana, inter alia, se agregara al final del artículo 65 de la Convención la siguiente frase: - "La Asamblea General los remitirá al Consejo Permanente, para estudiar la materia y rendir un informe, para que la Asamblea General delibere al respecto". De ese modo, se supliría una laguna atinente a un mecanismo que operara en base permanente (y no solamente una vez por año ante la Asamblea General de la OEA), para supervisar la fiel ejecución, por los Estados Partes demandados, de las sentencias de la Corte Interamericana. Me permito renovar ante este Consejo Permanente de la OEA la confianza que deposita la Corte en los Estados Partes como garantes de la Convención Americana, y agregar una breve y última reflexión181.

Y dos días después, ante la CAJP, siempre en el marco del diálogo sobre el fortalecimiento del sistema interamericano de protección de los derechos humanos, reiteró que: Además, se encargaría a un grupo de trabajo permanente de la CAJP, integrado por Representantes de Estados Partes en la Convención Americana,
supervisar en base permanente el estado de cumplimiento, por los Estados demandados, de las sentencias y decisiones de la Corte Interamericana, el cual
presentaría sus informes a la CAJP; ésta, a su vez, relataría al Consejo Permanente, para preparar su informe para la deliberación de la Asamblea General al respecto. De ese modo, se supliría un laguna en cuanto a un mecanismo, a operar en base permanente (y no solamente una vez por año ante la Asamblea General de la OEA), para supervisar la fiel ejecución, por los Estados Partes demandados, de las sentencias de la Corte182.

De nuevo, el 16 de octubre de 2002, el entonces Presidente de la Corte, Juez Antônio A. Cançado Trindade, hizo referencia al tema de la supervisión del cumplimiento de las sentencias del Tribunal ante el Consejo Permanente de la OEA de una manera muy explícita. Manifestó en esa ocasión:

El fiel cumplimiento o ejecución de sus sentencias es una preocupación legítima de todos los tribunales internacionales. En el sistema europeo de protección, por ejemplo, que cuenta inclusive con un mecanismo de supervisión de ejecución de sentencias de la Corte Europea de Derechos Humanos, por parte del Comité de Ministros del Consejo de Europa (órgano que históricamente antecedió la propia Convención Europea), la cuestión ha estado siempre en la agenda del referido Consejo. ¿Por qué, en nuestro continente, la OEA no asume su responsabilidad en esta área, aún más por no disponer hasta la fecha de un órgano con función análoga? Al respecto, la Corte Interamericana tiene actualmente una especial preocupación en cuanto a un aspecto del cumplimiento de sus sentencias. Los
Estados, por lo general, cumplen con las reparaciones que se refieren a indemnizaciones de carácter pecuniario, pero no sucede necesariamente lo mismo con las reparaciones de carácter no pecuniario, en especial las que se refieren a la investigación efectiva de los hechos que originaron las violaciones, y la identificación y sanción de los responsables, - imprescindibles para poner fin a la impunidad (con sus consecuencias negativas para el tejido social como un todo).

Actualmente, dada la carencia institucional del sistema interamericano de protección en esta área específica, la Corte Interamericana viene ejerciendo motu propio la supervisión de la ejecución de sus sentencias, dedicándole uno o dos días de cada período de sesiones. Pero la supervisión - en el ejercicio de la garantía colectiva - de la fiel ejecución de las sentencias y decisiones de la Corte es una tarea que recae sobre el conjunto de los Estados Partes en la Convención. En mi Informe a la CAJP de la OEA, del 05 de abril de 2001, avancé propuestas concretas para asegurar el monitoreo internacional permanente del fiel cumplimiento de todas las obligaciones convencionales de protección, y en particular de las sentencias de la Corte Interamericana, abarcando medidas tanto de prevención como de seguimiento183.

V La solicitud de interpretación de sentencia en el caso Baena Ricardo y otros presentada por el Estado de Panamá

20. Mediante escrito de 27 de febrero de 2003, el Estado de Panamá cuestionó la facultad de la Corte para supervisar el cumplimiento de la Sentencia de 2 de febrero de 2001 en el Caso Baena Ricardo y otros, así como el procedimiento utilizado por el Tribunal de solicitar u ordenar informes a los Estados con el fin de poder determinar, de acuerdo con el artículo 65 de la Convención, si hubo un incumplimiento e informarlo así a la Asamblea General de la OEA.

21. Consideró el Estado de Panamá en el escrito antes mencionado, “que la etapa de cumplimiento de sentencia es una etapa “post adjudicatura”, que “no está prevista por las normas que regulan la jurisdicción y el procedimiento de la Honorable Corte …”184 y “que no se encuentra en la esfera judicial que corresponde a la Honorable Corte sino estrictamente en la política, la que aquí [es] exclusiva de la Asamblea General de la Organización de los Estados Americanos”185. Agregó también el Estado de Panamá que “El Artículo 65 de la Convención Americana establece claramente que sólo la Asamblea General de la Organización de los Estados Americanos […] tiene la función de supervisar el cumplimiento de los fallos de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos. Dicha norma únicamente establece obligaciones a cargo de la Corte y no establece obligación alguna para los Estados Partes, así como tampoco otorga derechos a la Corte ni le otorga competencia para supervisar el cumplimiento de sus sentencias”186.

22. Mediante sentencia sobre competencia, de 28 de noviembre de 2003, la Corte refutó los argumentos del Estado panameño y determinó que es competente para supervisar el cumplimiento de sus decisiones, y que, en el ejercicio de dicha competencia, tiene la facultad de solicitar a los Estados la presentación de los informes necesarios para evaluar el cumplimiento de lo ordenado por ella y de emitir instrucciones y resoluciones sobre la materia187.

23. Al fundamentar su posición, la Corte citó el artículo 30 de su Estatuto, aprobado por la Asamblea General de la OEA celebrada en La Paz, Bolivia, en 1979, y que en lo sustancial reproduce el artículo 65 de la Convención Americana y recordó, tal y como se ha descrito en el presente voto razonado en el Caso Caesar contra Trinidad y Tobago, que:

90. Los travaux préparatoires de la Convención Americana permiten consultar cuál era la voluntad de los Estados cuando aprobaron dicho tratado, en cuanto a la supervisión del cumplimiento de las sentencias de la Corte. El Proyecto de Convención188 no establecía una disposición similar al actual artículo 65. Sin embargo, la Comisión II, encargada de estudiar y redactar los artículos correspondientes a la parte procesal del Proyecto de Convención189, propuso el texto del actual artículo 65 de la Convención Americana. En el Informe sobre “Órganos de la Protección y Disposiciones Generales” de 21 de noviembre de 1969 en la Conferencia Especializada Interamericana sobre Derechos Humanos190, la Comisión II indicó en su quinta sesión, celebrada el 17 de noviembre de 1969, que
las delegaciones expresaron su opinión de que se dotara a la Corte de una competencia amplia que le permitiera ser el instrumento eficaz para la protección jurisdiccional de los derechos humanos191.

En el mencionado informe, al explicar la redacción de las disposiciones del proyecto del tratado correspondientes a la Corte, la Comisión II se refirió al entonces proyecto del actual artículo 65 en los siguientes términos: El artículo 65, que es una disposición nueva, establece que la Corte someterá un informe a la Asamblea General de la Organización, lo cual está contemplado en el Artículo 52 de la Carta de la Organización, reformada por el Protocolo de Buenos Aires.

Pero, además, el artículo dispone el importante concepto de que la Corte debe señalar los casos en que un Estado no haya dado cumplimiento a sus fallos, con las recomendaciones pertinentes de la Corte […]192.

90. La Corte estima que la voluntad de los Estados, al aprobar lo estipulado en el artículo 65 de la Convención, fue otorgar a la misma Corte la facultad de supervisar el cumplimiento de sus decisiones, y que fuera el Tribunal el encargado de poner en conocimiento de la Asamblea General de la OEA, a través de su Informe Anual, los casos en los cuales se diera un incumplimiento de las decisiones de la Corte, porque no es posible dar aplicación al artículo 65 de la Convención sin que el Tribunal supervise la observancia de sus decisiones193.

Además, puso de manifiesto la laguna que en esta materia existe en la Convención Americana y que es el objeto del presente voto razonado, al manifestar que:

88. La Convención Americana no estableció un órgano específicamente encargado de supervisar el cumplimiento de las sentencias emitidas por la Corte, como sí lo dispuso la Convención Europea. En la preparación de la Convención Americana se siguió el esquema adoptado por la Convención Europea, en lo relativo a los órganos competentes y a los mecanismos institucionales; sin embargo, es claro que al regular la supervisión del cumplimiento de las sentencias de la Corte Interamericana no se contempló que la Asamblea General de la OEA o el Consejo Permanente de la OEA desempeñaran una función semejante a la del Comité de Ministros en el sistema europeo194.

24. Al no contemplar precisamente la Convención Americana que la Asamblea General de la OEA o el Consejo Permanente desempeñaran en esta materia una función similar a la del Comité de Ministros en el sistema europeo, y al no implementar la OEA la aplicación del artículo 65 de la Convención Americana, explica lo ocurrido en el caso Hilaire, Constantine, Benjamin y otros. Si la Corte hubiera aceptado la tesis del Estado de Panamá de que incluso no puede ella pedir a los Estados informes y adoptar conclusiones para aplicar el artículo 65 de la Convención, la Corte se hubiera tenido que limitar a remitir sus sentencias a la Asamblea General de la OEA, donde dependiendo del interés y la actitud del Estado demandado en el caso objeto del informe del artículo 65 de la Convención, podría no
pronunciarse. Esto se debe a que actualmente, según sea el texto que adopte la CAJP, la Asamblea General puede o no pronunciarse sobre el incumplimiento de un fallo de la Corte.

VI Cómo funciona actualmente el Sistema en la Comisión de Asuntos Jurídicos y Políticos del Consejo Permanente de la OEA y la necesidad de modificarlo

25. Una vez que la Corte Interamericana aprueba su informe anual a la Asamblea General de la OEA, el cual puede o no incluir señalamientos relativos a incumplimientos de sus fallos, lo remite al Presidente del Consejo Permanente de la OEA y copia al Secretario General de la misma, para que sea sometido a la Asamblea General. Esto se hace así porque, de acuerdo con el artículo 91.f) de la Carta de la OEA, corresponde al Consejo Permanente: Considerar los informes del Consejo Interamericano para el Desarrollo Integral, del Comité Jurídico Interamericano, de la Comisión Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, de la Secretaría General, de los organismos y conferencias especializados y de los demás órganos y entidades, y presentar a la Asamblea General las observaciones y recomendaciones que estime del caso…

26. El Consejo Permanente transmite el informe a su Comisión de Asuntos Jurídicos y Políticos, que escucha la presentación que del mismo hace el Presidente de la Corte, delibera sobre el informe y adopta una resolución que transmite al Consejo Permanente, el cual a su vez transmite a la Asamblea General. En la práctica lo que sucede es que la resolución que aprueba la CAJP, es la misma que conoce y aprueba el Consejo y la Asamblea General. Y ese texto, en la CAJP, se aprueba por consenso. Basta que el Estado que la Corte menciona como sujeto de un incumplimiento se oponga a que se le exhorte en la resolución a informar a la Corte sobre el cumplimiento de la sentencia, para que no se le haga tal exhortación en la resolución que aprueba la CAJP y, consecuentemente, en la que aprueba el Consejo Permanente y la Asamblea General. Es decir, el procedimiento establecido por la OEA hace que la información de un pronunciamiento emitido por la Corte de acuerdo al artículo 65 de la Convención, no llegue a ser conocido y, menos deliberado, por la Asamblea General. Y esto es lo que ocurrió en el caso Hilaire, Constantine, Benjamin y otros contra Trinidad y Tobago y pudiera ocurrir lo mismo con las reparaciones ordenadas por la Corte en el presente caso Caesar contra Trinidad y Tobago.

27. Sin embargo, en la Resolución AG/RES. 2043 (XXXIV-0-04), “Observaciones y Recomendaciones al Informe Anual de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos”, que aprobó la Asamblea General en su reunión de Quito de 2004, se dice textualmente en el punto resolutivo 4: Reiterar que, con el propósito de que la Corte pueda cumplir cabalmente con la obligación de informar a la Asamblea General sobre el cumplimiento de sus fallos, es necesario que los Estados Parte le brinden oportunamente la información que la Corte les requiera. Un paso adelante muy importante, pero no suficiente, porque no menciona qué Estado o Estados deben brindar esa información. Pero en esa misma Resolución, así como en la que aprobó la Asamblea General, en Santiago de Chile en el año 2003, AG/RES. 1918 (XXXIII-0- 03), también sobre “Observaciones y Recomendaciones al Informe Anual de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos”, Trinidad y Tobago solicitó el registro de su reserva a los párrafos resolutivos 9 y 7, respectivamente, que textualmente dicen lo mismo: Instar a los Estados Miembros de la OEA a que consideren, según sea el caso, la firma y ratificación o adhesión a la Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos y demás instrumentos del sistema, incluyendo la aceptación de la jurisdicción obligatoria de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos.

VII Las consecuencias de la laguna existente en la Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos, para dar efecto útil al artículo 65 de la misma

28. La consecuencia de que la Convención Americana no establezca un mecanismo para implementar y dar efecto útil al artículo 65 de la Convención Americana, sumado al trámite que se da en la OEA al informe anual de la Corte, es que cuando se revisa la lista de casos y medidas provisionales sometidas a la Corte para que las considere de acuerdo con su función jurisdiccional, se provoque una impresión equivocada del grado satisfactorio de cumplimiento de las sentencias y resoluciones de la Corte por los Estados Partes en la Convención Americana. Esto ocurre porque los casos no se pueden cerrar hasta que ha habido un cumplimiento total de la sentencia, pese a que el grado de cumplimiento parcial de las mismas es muy alto. Esta situación podría solventarse si los Estados Partes remitieran siempre oportunamente a la Corte la información que ésta les solicita sobre cumplimiento de sentencias y medidas provisionales.

29. A continuación, se transcribe la lista de la totalidad de casos contenciosos y medidas provisionales sometidos a la Corte hasta el mes de febrero del año 2005, señalándose específicamente cuáles casos se han cerrado y cuáles medidas provisionales se han levantado.

Casos Contenciosos195
Nombre del Caso Estado
Demandado
Año de Ingreso
Etapa Actual
1. Caso Velásquez Rodríguez Honduras 1986 Archivado
2. Fairén Garbi y Solís Corrales Honduras 1986 Archivado
3. Godínez Cruz Honduras 1986 Archivado
4. Aloeboetoe y Otros Suriname 1990 Archivado
5. Gangaram Panday Suriname 1990 Archivado
6. Genie Lacayo Nicaragua 1994 Archivado
7. Cayara Perú 1992 Archivado
8. Maqueda Argentina 1994 Archivado
9. “La Última Tentación de Cristo” (Olmedo Bustos y otros) Chile 1999 Archivado
10. Alfonso Martín del Campo Dodd México 2003 Archivado
11. Caso Neira Alegría y otros Perú 1990 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
12. Caso Caballero Delgado y Santana Colombia 1992 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
13. Caso El Amparo Venezuela 1994 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
14. Caso Loayza Tamayo Perú 1995 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
15. Caso Castillo Páez Perú 1995 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
16. Caso Garrido y Baigorria Argentina 1995 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
17. Caso Blake Guatemala 1995 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
18. Caso Suárez Rosero Ecuador 1995 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
19. Caso Benavides Cevallos Ecuador 1996 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
20. Caso Castillo Petruzzi y Perú 1997 Supervisión de
21. Caso Baena Ricardo y otros Panamá 1998 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
22. Caso Ivcher Bronstein Perú 1999 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
23. Caso del Tribunal Constitucional Perú 1999 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
24. Caso de la “Panel Blanca” (Paniagua Morales y otros) Guatemala 1995 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
25. Caso de los “Niños de la Calle” (Villagrán Morales y otros) Guatemala 1997 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
26. Caso Cesti Hurtado Perú 1998 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
27. Caso de la Comunidad Indígena Mayagna (Sumo) Awas Tingni Nicaragua 1998 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
28. Caso Cantoral Benavides Perú 1996 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
29. Caso Durand y Ugarte Perú 1996 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
30. Caso Bámaca Velásquez Guatemala 1996 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
31. Caso Trujillo Oroza Bolivia 1999 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
32. Caso Hilaire, Constantine, Benjamin y otros Trinidad y Tobago 1999-2000 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
33. Caso Barrios Altos Perú 2000 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
34. Caso Las Palmeras Colombia 1998 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
35. Caso del Caracazo Venezuela 1999 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
36. Caso Bulacio Argentina 2001 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
37. Caso Cantos Argentina 1999 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
38. Caso Juan Humberto Sánchez Honduras 2001 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
39. Caso “Cinco Pensionistas” Perú 2001 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
40. Caso Mack Chang Guatemala 2001 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
41. Caso Maritza Urrutia Guatemala 2002 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
42. Caso 19 Comerciantes Colombia 2001 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
43. Caso de los Hermanos Gómez Paquiyauri Perú 2002 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
44. Caso Instituto de Reeducación del Menor Paraguay 2002 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
45. Caso Ricardo Canese Paraguay 2002 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
46. Caso Lori Berenson Mejía Perú 2002 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
47. Caso Herrera Ulloa Costa Rica 2003 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
48. Caso Carpio Nicolle y otros Guatemala 2003 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
49. Caso De La Cruz Flores Perú 2003 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
50. Caso “Masacre Plan de Sánchez” Guatemala 2002 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
51. Caso de las Hermanas Serrano Cruz El Salvador 2003 En trámite
52. Caso Daniel Tibi Ecuador 2003 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
53. Caso Molina Theissen Guatemala 2003 Supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia
54. Caso de la Comunidad Moiwana Suriname 2002 Excepciones preliminares y eventuales fondo, reparaciones y costas
55. Caso Caesar Trinidad y Tobago 2003 En trámite
56. Caso Yatama Nicaragua 2003 En trámite
57. Caso Acevedo Jaramillo y otros (SITRAMUN) Perú 2003 En trámite
58. Caso de la “Masacre de Mapiripán” Colombia 2003 En trámite
59. Caso Acosta Calderón Ecuador 2003 En trámite
60. Caso Comunidad Yakye Axa Paraguay 2003 En trámite
61. Caso de la Niñas Yean y Bosico República Dominicana 2003 En trámite
62. Caso López Álvarez Honduras 2003 En trámite
63. Caso Huilca Tecse Perú 2004 En trámite
64. Caso “Pueblo Bello” Colombia 2004 En trámite
65. Caso Gutiérrez Soler Colombia 2004 En trámite
66. Caso Palamara Iribarne Chile 2004 En trámite
67. Caso García Asto y Ramírez Rojas Perú 2004 Trámite inicial (procedimiento escrito)
68. Caso Blanco Romero y otros Venezuela 2004 Trámite inicial (procedimiento escrito)
69. Caso Ituango Colombia 2004 Trámite inicial (procedimiento escrito)
70. Caso Juárez Cruzzat y otros Perú 2004 Trámite inicial (en proceso el examen preliminar de la demanda)
71. Caso Fermín Ramírez Guatemala 2004 Trámite inicial (procedimiento escrito)
72. Caso Gómez Palomino Perú 2004 Trámite inicial (procedimiento escrito)
73. Caso Raxcacó Reyes Guatemala 2004 Trámite inicial (procedimiento escrito)
74. Caso Ximenes Lopes Brasil 2004 Trámite inicial (procedimiento escrito)
75. Nogueira de Carvalho Brasil 2005 Trámite inicial (procedimiento escrito)

Medidas Provisionales196

NOMBRE DEL CASO
Estado respecto del cual se han Adoptado
Año de sometimien to
Estado Actual
1. Caso Velásquez Rodríguez Honduras 1988 Archivadas
2. Caso Fairén Garbí y Solís Corrales Honduras 1988 Archivadas
3. Caso Godínez Cruz Honduras 1988 Archivadas
4. Caso Bustíos Rojas Perú 1991 Archivadas
5. Caso Chunimá Guatemala 1991 Archivadas
6. Caso Reggiardo Tolosa Argentina 1993 Archivadas
7. Caso Alemán Lacayo Nicaragua 1996 Archivadas
8. Caso Vogt Guatemala 1996 Archivadas
9. Caso Suárez Rosero Ecuador 1996 Archivadas
10. Caso Serech y Saquic Guatemala 1996 Archivadas
11. Caso Paniagua Morales y otros y caso Vásquez y otros Guatemala 1998 Archivadas
12. Caso Paniagua Morales y otros Guatemala 2001 Archivadas
13. Caso Clemente Teherán y otros Colombia 1998 Archivadas
14. Caso del Tribunal Constitucional Perú 2000 Archivadas
15. Caso Ivcher Bronstein Perú 2000 Archivadas
16. Caso Digna Ochoa y Plácido y otros México 1999 Archivadas
17. Caso Loayza Tamayo Perú 1996/2000 Archivadas
18. Caso del Periódico La Nación Costa Rica 2001 Archivadas
19. Caso Chipoco Perú 1992 No adoptadas
20. Caso Penales Peruanos Perú 1992 No adoptadas
21. Caso Parker Perú No adoptadas
22. Caso Cesti Hurtado Perú 1997 No adoptadas
23. Caso Colotenango Guatemala 1994 Activas
24. Caso Carpio Nicolle y otros Guatemala 1995 Activas
25. Caso Giraldo Cardona Colombia 1996 Activas
26. Caso Álvarez y otros Colombia 1997 Activas
27. Caso James y otros Trinidad y Tobago 1998 Activas
28. Caso de Haitianos y Dominicanos de origen haitiano en la República Dominicana República Dominicana 2000 Activas
29. Caso Bámaca Velásquez Guatemala 1998/2002 Activas
30. Caso Blake Guatemala 1995 Activas
31. Caso Caballero Delgado y Santana Colombia 1994 Activas
32. Caso de la Comunidad de Paz de San José de Apartadó Colombia 2000 Activas
33. Caso del Centro de Derechos Humanos Miguel Agustín Pro Juárez y otros (actualmente Pilar Noriega y otros) México 2001 Activas
34. Caso Gallardo Rodríguez México 2001 Activas
35. Caso de la Cárcel de Urso Branco Brasil 2002 Activas
36. Caso de la Comunidad Mayagna (Sumo) Awas Tingni Nicaragua 2002 Activas
37. Caso Helen Mack y otros Guatemala 2002 Activas
38. Caso Luis Uzcátegui Venezuela 2002 Activas
39. Caso Lilliana Ortega y otras Venezuela 2002 Activas
40. Caso Luisiana Ríos y otros (Radio Caracas Televisión - RCTV-) Venezuela 2002 Activas
41. Caso Lysias Fleury Haití 2003 Activas
42. Caso Marta Colomina y Lilliana Velásquez Venezuela 2003 Activas
43. Caso de las Comunidades del Jiguamiandó y del Curbaradó Colombia 2003 Activas
44. Caso de los Hermanos Gómez Paquiyauri Perú 2004 Activas
45. Caso Pueblo Indígena Kankuamo Colombia 2004 Activas
46. Caso de la Comunidad Sarayaku Ecuador 2004 Activas
47. Caso de los Diarios “El Nacional” y “Así es la Noticia” Venezuela 2004 Activas
48. Caso Carlos Nieto Palma y otros Venezuela 2004 Activas
49. Caso 19 Comerciantes (Sandra Belinda Montero Fuentes y otros) Colombia 2004 Activas
50. Caso de la Emisora de Televisión “Globovisión” Venezuela 2004 Activas
51. Caso Raxcacó y otros Guatemala 2004 Activas
52. Caso Boyce y Joseph Barbados 2004 Activas
53. Caso Eloisa Barrios y otros Venezuela 2004 Activas
54. Caso de las Penitenciarías de Mendoza Argentina 2004 Activas
55. Caso Masacre Plan de Guatemala 2004 Activas Sánchez (Salvador Jerónimo y otros)
56. Caso Fermín Ramírez Guatemala 2004 Activas
57. Caso de la “Masacre de Mapiripán” Colombia 2005 Activas

VIII Propuesta de Solución

30. Ha quedado demostrado que como consecuencia de la ausencia de una norma convencional que permite implementar el artículo 65 de la Convención y de la manera como se tramita y se considera el informe anual de labores de la Corte por las instancias pertinentes de la OEA, los informes de no cumplimiento de una sentencia de la Corte no son directamente conocidos o debatidos por la Asamblea General de la OEA, ni tampoco por el Consejo Permanente o su Comisión de Asuntos Jurídicos y Políticos. Esta última se limita a debatir y a emitir un proyecto de resolución para el Consejo Permanente, que luego se somete a la Asamblea General, sobre el informe de labores de la Corte. Pero no se escucha y debate sobre el incumplimiento específico del caso en mención y, consecuentemente, el
descargo respectivo del Estado.

31. No cabe la menor duda de que la solución óptima sería adoptar un protocolo de reformas a la parte procedimental de la Convención Americana, tal y como oportunamente lo propuso la Corte. Pero de momento y en ausencia de una solución a largo plazo, debe optarse por una que a corto plazo permita que se debatan, por los órganos respectivos de la OEA, los informes de incumplimiento de sentencias dictadas por la Corte, lo que podría facilitar en muchos casos el pronto y total cumplimiento de los mismos y su cierre definitivo por la Corte. Esto fortalecería el sistema interamericano de derechos humanos que erróneamente parece inefectivo como consecuencia de los datos que se transcribieron anteriormente (supra párr. 29).

32. Aunque en reiteradas ocasiones la Corte ha comunicado a la Asamblea General que no ha recibido información de un Estado sobre el cumplimiento de una sentencia o de medidas provisionales197, solamente en el año 1995 la Asamblea General exhortó a un Estado, en el caso concreto Suriname, a informar a la Corte sobre el cumplimiento de las sentencias sobre los casos Aloeboetoe y Gangaram Panday (supra párr. 9), lo que es una prueba irrefutable de lo afirmado en este voto razonado en el caso Caesar contra Trinidad y Tobago y que debe merecer toda la atención del caso por los Estados Partes en la Convención Americana.

33. Para evitar que esto continúe sucediendo, la solución más inmediata sería que la CAJP creara un grupo de trabajo -con carácter permanente- para que en su seno se consideraran los informes de incumplimiento emitidos por la Corte y los miembros de la misma recibieran informes escritos y verbales de la Corte, la Comisión y los representantes de las víctimas, así como los descargos o explicaciones que pudieran dar los Estados Partes, con el fin de elevar las recomendaciones pertinentes a la CAJP, al Consejo Permanente y, finalmente, a la Asamblea General.

34. La OEA es una institución de naturaleza fundamentalmente política, pese a la cual, los grandes temas políticos han estado ausentes de su agenda diaria, aquellos temas relativos a los principios jurídicos y políticos que dieron vida a la organización y son su razón de ser. La Organización no puede ignorar y dejar de debatir temas relativos al incumplimiento por alguno de sus Estados Miembros del principio pacta sunt servanda y de incumplimiento de las reparaciones en una sentencia dictada por el órgano jurisdiccional de la Organización en materia de derechos humanos. La revitalización de la OEA pasa por el camino de enfrentar estos temas y no de convertirse simple y llanamente en una agencia de cooperación internacional. Lo ocurrido en el caso Hilaire, Constantine, Benjamin y otros
contra Trinidad y Tobago, en que un Estado Parte en un caso ante el Tribunal se niega a informar al mismo sobre cómo ha dado cumplimiento a una sentencia (artículo 68 de la Convención), y no haya una reacción de los órganos políticos de la Organización, es un mal precedente. Ojalá no hubieran otros nunca más y que el Estado mencionado informe sobre el cumplimiento de las reparaciones dictadas en la presente Sentencia en el caso Caesar.

IX CONCLUSIONES

35. La Organización de los Estados Americanos es un foro de naturaleza política, destinado fundamentalmente a promover la democracia y, consecuentemente, la dignidad del ser humano.

36. Con este fin se estableció el sistema interamericano de derechos humanos que cuenta entre sus órganos de protección a la Comisión y a la Corte Interamericanas de Derechos Humanos, este último órgano jurisdiccional que dicta sentencias de acatamiento obligatorio para los Estados Partes en la Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos (artículo 68 de la Convención).

37. Pese a que la Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos se fundamentó en el Convenio [Europeo] para la Protección de los Derechos Humanos y de las Libertades Fundamentales de 1950, no estableció como el Europeo un órgano como el Consejo de Ministros para supervisar el cumplimiento de las sentencias que dicta el Tribunal.

38. Consecuentemente, el artículo 65 de la Convención Americana tiene una laguna que debe ser subsanada, porque si bien obliga a la Corte debe informar a la OEA de los incumplimientos de sus sentencias, no estableció un procedimiento institucional dentro de la OEA para hacerlo, y el que ha establecido la Organización no permite que la Asamblea General, máximo órgano político e la Organización, conozca y delibere sobre los incumplimientos de las sentencias emitidas por la Corte.

39. El alto grado de cumplimiento de las sentencias de la Corte, es uno de los grandes logros del sistema interamericano de protección de los derechos humanos198. No obstante, el debatir en un foro permanente en la OEA los incumplimientos de las sentencias que dicta el Tribunal, que podría ser en un grupo de trabajo, vitalizaría la OEA, ya que el debate en un foro de esta naturaleza pondría de manifiesto ante los Estados Miembros las fortalezas, pero también las carencias y debilidades del sistema, con miras a su fortalecimiento y perfeccionamiento.

40. Lo ocurrido con la falta de información sobre el cumplimiento de la sentencia en el caso Hilaire, Constantine, Benjamin y otros contra Trinidad y Tobago, me ha motivado a exponer en este voto razonado en el caso Caesar contra Trinidad y Tobago, las debilidades del sistema en este campo, con la esperanza de que situaciones como las aquí expuestas no se vuelvan a repetir y los Estados Miembros de la OEA, pero especialmente los Estados Partes en la Convención Americana, implementen el mecanismo necesario para que se cumplan cabalmente las sentencias que dicte la Corte Interamericana, porque como ya lo ha
dicho reiteradamente este Tribunal, “en una sociedad democrática los derechos y libertades inherentes a la persona, sus garantías y el Estado de Derecho constituyen una tríada, cada uno de cuyos componentes se define, completa y adquiere sentido en función de los otros“199.

Manuel E. Ventura-Robles
Juez
Pablo Saavedra Alessandri
Secretario

 

Notes_________________________

1 The present Judgment is delivered according to the terms of the Court’s Rules of Procedure approved by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights during its XLIX Ordinary Period of Sessions by Order of November 24, 2000, which entered into force on June 1, 2001, and according to the partial amendment approved by the Court during its LXI Ordinary Period of Sessions by Order of November 25, 2003, which entered into force on January 1, 2004.

2 The 2000 amendment of the Corporal Punishment Act (Offenders Over Sixteen) provides that this law may be administered only to male offenders over the age of 18, so it changed its name to “Corporal Punishment Act (Offenders Over Eighteen)” (infra para. 49(9)).

3 Cf. Hilaire Case. Preliminary Objections. Judgment of September 1, 2001. Series C No. 80, para. 98; Benjamin et al. Case. Preliminary Objections. Judgment of September 1, 2001. Series C No. 81, para. 89; and Constantine et al. Case. Preliminary Objections. Judgment of September 1, 2001. Series C No. 82, para. 89.

4 Cf. Case of the Serrano-Cruz Sisters. Preliminary Objections. Judgment of November 23, 2004, Series C No. 118, para. 63; Case of Alfonso Martín-del Campo-Dodd. Preliminary Objections. Judgment of September 3, 2004, Series C No. 113, para. 69; and Case of Baena-Ricardo et al. Competence. Judgment
of November 28, 2003, Series C No. 104, para. 68.

5 Cf. Hilaire Case. Preliminary Objections, supra note 3, paras. 82 and 84; Benjamin et al. Case. Preliminary Objections, supra note 3, paras. 73 to 75; and Constantine et al. Case. Preliminary Objections, supra note 3, paras. 73 to75.

6 Cf. Case of the Serrano-Cruz Sisters. Preliminary Objections, supra note 4, paras. 66 and 67.

7 Cf. Hilaire, Constantine, Benjamin et al. Case. Judgment of June 21, 2002. Series C No. 94, para. 67; The "Street Children" Case (Villagrán Morales et al.), Judgment of November 19, 1999, Series C No. 63, para. 68; and Godínez-Cruz Case. Judgment of January 20, 1989, Series C No. 5, para. 144.

8 Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 23, para. 27. See also, Cf., inter alia, Fisheries Jurisdiction (United Kingdom v. Iceland), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 7, para. 12; Fisheries Jurisdiction (United Kingdom v. Iceland), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 9, para.17; Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment of 20 December 1974, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 257, para. 15; Aegean Sea Continental Shelf, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1978, p. 7, para. 15; and United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1980, p. 18, para. 33.

9 Cf. Ivcher Bronstein Case. Judgment of February 6, 2001. Series C No. 74, paras. 80 and 82; and Constitutional Court Case. Judgment of January 31, 2001, Series C No. 71, paras. 60 to 62.

10 Cf. Case of Lori Berenson-Mejía. Judgment of November 25, 2004. Series C No. 119, para. 62; Case of Carpio-Nicolle et al., Judgment of November 22, 2004. Series C No. 117, para. 54; and Case of Plan de Sánchez Massacre. Reparations (Art. 63(1) American Convention on Human Rights. Judgment of
November 19, 2004. Series C No. 116, para. 27.

11 Cf. Case of Lori Berenson-Mejía, supra note 10, para. 64; Case of Carpio-Nicolle et al., supra note 10, para. 55; and Case of Plan de Sánchez Massacre. Reparations, supra note 10, para 28.

12 Cf. Case of Lori Berenson-Mejía, supra note 10, para. 77; Case of Carpio-Nicolle et al., supra note 10, para. 70; and Case of Plan de Sánchez Massacre. Reparations, supra note 10, para. 39.

13 Cf. Case of Lori Berenson-Mejía, supra note 10, para. 78; Case of Carpio-Nicolle et al., supra note 10, para. 71; and Case of Plan de Sánchez Massacre. Reparations, supra note 10, para. 46.

14 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 5); American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man (Article 1); International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (Article 7); European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (Article 3); African Charter of Human and
Peoples’ Rights (Article 5) and Arab Charter of Human Rights (Article 13).

15 United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners, adopted August 30, 1955 by the First United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders, U.N. Doc. A/CONF/611, annex I, E.S.C. res. 663C, 24 U.N. ESCOR Supp. (No. 1) at 11, U.N. Doc. E/3048
(1957), amended E.S.C. res. 2076, 62 U.N. ESCOR Supp. (No. 1) at 35, U.N. Doc E/5988 (1977). Rule 31 specifically provides that “[c]orporal punishment, punishment by placing in a dark cell, and all cruel, inhuman or degrading punishment shall be completely prohibited as punishment for disciplinary offences”.

16 Cf. Case of Lori Berenson-Mejía, supra note 10, para. 100; Case of De la Cruz-Flores, Judgment of November 18, 2004. Series C No. 115, para. 125; and Case of Tibi, Judgment of September 7, 2004. Series C No. 114, para. 143.

17 "Questions of the Human Right of all Persons subjected to any form of detention or imprisonment, in particular: torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment". Report of the Special Rapporteur, Mr. Nigel S. Rodley, submitted pursuant to Commission on Human Rights res. 1995/37 B, 10 January 1997, E/CN.4/1997/7.

18 UNHRC, General Comment 20, Article 7 (44th sess., 1992), Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations adopted by Human Rights Treaty Bodies, U.N. Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.1 at 14 (1994), para. 5; and UNHRC, General Comment 21, Article 10 (44th sess., 1992), Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations adopted by Human Rights Treaty Bodies, U.N. Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.1 at 14 (1994), para. 3.

19 UNHRC consideration of reports submitted by states parties under Article 40 of the Covenant, Concluding observations of the Human Rights Committee: Trinidad and Tobago, Seventieth session, November 3, 2000, CCPR/CO/70/TTO, para. 13.

20 Osbourne v. Jamaica, Communication No. 759/1997, Report of the Human Rights Committee, April 13, 2000, CCPR/C/68/D/759/1997, para. 9.1. See also UNHRC, Boodlal Sooklal v. Trinidad and Tobago, Communication No. 928/2000, Report of the Human Rights Committee, November 8, 2001, CCPR/C/73/928/2000, para. 4.6; and Matthews v. Trinidad and Tobago, (569/1993) Report of the Human Rights Committee, 29 May 1998, CCPR/C/62/D/569/1993, para. 7.2.

21 Eur. Court H.R., Tyrer v. United Kingdom, (5856/72), Judgment of April 25, 1978, Series A No. 26, para. 33. In the Case of A v. United Kingdom, the European Court similarly found that the beating of a nine year-old boy with a garden cane, which had been applied with considerable force on more than one occasion, constituted a violation of Article 3 of the European Convention (Eur. Court H.R., A v. United Kingdom, (100/1997/884/1096), Judgment of September 23, 1998). For its part, the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment has specified that domestic laws providing for corporal punishment were "in flagrant contradiction with European Prison Rules, and generally grossly outdated" or are "clearly no longer acceptable by modernday standards (European Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, Report to the Maltese Government on the visit to Malta (CPT) from July 1 to 19, 1990, October 1, 1992, CPT/Inf (92) 5, at 16 and 23).

22 With respect to norms applicable in international armed conflicts, the Third Geneva Convention of August 12, 1949 relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, 75 U.N.T.S. 135, entered into force October 21, 1950, Art. 87 (3), 89 and 108. The Fourth Geneva Convention of August 12, 1949 relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, 75 U.N.T.S. 287, entered into force October 21, 1950, Arts. 32, 118 and 119. More generally, Article 75 of Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions provides that corporal punishment is and shall remain prohibited at any time and in any place whatsoever, whether committed by civilian or by military agents (Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 1125 U.N.T.S. 3, entered into force Dec. 7, 1978, Art. 75 (2) (b). See also Art. 11(4). In the case of non-international armed conflicts, Article 4 of the Additional Protocol II to the Geneva Conventions prohibits corporal punishment at any time and in any place whatsoever (Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts (Protocol II), June 8, 1977).

23 Examples of recent legislative change include: the Abolition of Corporal Punishment Ordinance 1998 (Anguilla), the of Corporal Punishment (Abolition) Act 2000 (British Virgin Islands), the Prisons (Amendment) Law 1998 (Cayman Islands), the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act (Act No 5 of 2003) (Kenya), the Punishment of Whipping Act 1996 (Pakistan) (but still permitted for “Hadood” crimes), and the Abolition of of Corporal Punishment Act 1997 (South Africa).

24 Cf. State v. Ncube 1987 (2) ZLR 246 (SC); 1988 (2) SA 702 (Zimbabwe Supreme Court); Court of First Instance of the Netherlands Antilles, cited by the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, Report to the Government of the Netherlands on the visit to the Netherlands Antilles from 7 to 11 December 1997, December 10, 1998, CPT/Inf (98)17 [Part 1], at 10; and Hope v. Pelzer, 122 S. Ct. 2508, No. 01-309, Supreme Court of the United States of America 122 S. Ct. 2508; Gates v. Collier 501 F. 2d 1292 at 1306 (5th Cir.); Ex parte Attorney General of Namibia, In re Corporal Punishment by Organs of the State, 1991 (3) SA 76 (Namibia Supreme Court), at 95F; State v. Williams and Others, 1995 (3) SA 632 (South Africa Constitutional Court), para. 11; Simon Kyamanywa v. Uganda, Constitutional Reference No. 10/2000, 1 December 2001 (Constitutional Court of Uganda); Naushad Ali v. State, Criminal Appeal No. HAA 0083/2001L, March 21, 2002 (Fiji High Court); y John Banda v. The People, HPA/6/1998 (High Court of Zambia).

25 Cf. Eur. Court H.R., Ireland v. United Kingdom, (1979-80), Judgment of January 18, 1978, paras. 162-163.

26 ICTFY, Prosecutor v. Delalic et al. (Celebici case), Case No. IT-96-21-T, Judgment of November 16, 1998, para. 552. See also Prosecutor v. Kunarac, Kovac and Vukovic, Case No. IT-96-23-T and IT-96- 23/1-T, Judgment of February 22, 2001, para. 514; Prosecutor v. Blaskic, Case No. IT-45-14-T, Judgment of March 3, 2000, para. 186; and Prosecutor v. Jelesic, Case No. IT-95-10-T, Judgment of December 14, 1999, para. 41.

27 Case of Loayza-Tamayo. Judgment of September 17, 1997. Series C No. 33, para. 57. See also, Eur. Cour H.R., Case of Ireland v. the United Kingdom, supra note 25, para. 167.

28 Cf. Case of the Gómez-Paquiyauri Brothers, Judgment of July 8, 2004, Series C No. 110, para. 112; Case of Maritza Urrutia. Judgment of November 27, 2003, Series C No. 103, para. 92; and Cantoral- Benavides Case. Judgment of August 18, 2000, Series C No. 69, paras. 102 and 103.

29 Cf., in the same vein, Tyrer v. United Kingdom, supra note 21. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur on Torture of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights (supra note 17) has noted that “[…] the ‘lawful sanctions’ exclusion must necessarily refer to those sanctions that constitute practices widely accepted as legitimate by the international community, such as deprivation of liberty through imprisonment, which is common to almost all penal systems. […] By contrast, the Special Rapporteur cannot accept the notion that the administration of such punishment as stoning to death, flogging and then amputation […] can be deemed lawful simply because the punishment has been authorized in a procedurally legitimate manner, i.e. through the sanction of legislation, administrative rules or judicial order. To accept this view would be to accept that any physical punishment, no matter how torturous and cruel, can be considered lawful, as long as the punishment had been duly promulgated under the domestic law of a State. Punishment is, after all, one of the prohibited purposes of torture. […] Indeed, cruel, inhuman or degrading punishment are, then, by definition unlawful; so they can hardly qualify as ‘lawful sanctions’ within the meaning of Article 1 of the Convention against Torture”.

30 Affidavit of Winston Caesar, sworn on October 23, 2002 (Exhibits to the Application of the Inter- American Commission, Exhibit 4).

31 Affidavit of Winston Caesar, supra note 30.

32 Cf. Trinidad and Tobago’s Prison Rules (West Indian Prisons Act of 1838 (q & 2 Vict. C67).

33 United Nations’ Principles of Medical Ethics relevant to the Role of Health Personnel, particularly Physicians, in the Protection of Prisoners and Detainees against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, G.A. Res. 37/194, annex, 37 U.N. GAOR Sup. (No. 51) at 211, U.N.
Doc. A/37/51 (1982).

34 Cf. Castillo-Petruzzi et al. Case. Judgment of May 30, 1999. Series C No. 52, para. 90; The"Panel Blanca" Case (Paniagua Morales et al.). Judgment of March 8, 1998. Series C No. 37, para. 71; and Suárez-Rosero Case. Judgment of November 12, 1997. Series C No. 35, para. 37.

35 In Tyrer v. United Kingdom (supra note 21), the European Court pointed out that “admittedly, the relevant legislation provides that in any event birching shall not take place later than six months after the passing of sentence. However, this does not alter the fact that there had been an interval of several weeks since the applicant's conviction by the juvenile court and a considerable delay in the police station where the punishment was carried out. Accordingly, in addition to the physical pain he experienced, Mr. Tyrer was subjected to the mental anguish of anticipating the violence he was to have inflicted on him”.

36 Cf. Hilaire, Constantine and Benjamin et al. Case, supra note 7, para. 113.

37 Cf. Case of Lori Berenson-Mejía, supra note 10, para. 102; Case of Tibi, supra note 16, para. 150; and Case of the “Juvenile Reeducation Institute”, Judgment of September 2, 2004, Series C No. 112, para. 151. See also United Nations Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners. Adopted by the First United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders, held at Geneva in 1955, and approved by the E.S.C. res. 663 C (XXIV) of July 31, 1957 and 2076 (LXII) of May 13, 1977, Rules 10 and 11.

38 Cf. Case of Tibi, supra note 16, para. 129; Case of the “Juvenile Reeducation Institute”, supra note 37, para. 152; and Case of the Gómez-Paquiyauri Brothers, supra note 28, para. 98.

39 Cf. Case of Lori Berenson-Mejía, supra note 10, para. 102; Case of Tibi, supra note 16, para. 150; and Case of the “Juvenile Reeducation Institute”, supra note 37, para. 153.

40 Cf. Hilaire, Constantine, Benjamin et al. Case, supra note 7, paras. 169 and 170.

41 Cf. Case of the Serrano-Cruz Sisters. Preliminary Objections, supra note 4, paras. 60, 61 and 64; Case of Alfonso Martín-del Campo-Dodd. Preliminary Objections, supra note 4, para. 68; and Cantos Case. Preliminary Objections. Judgment of September 7, 2001, Series C No. 85, para. 35.

42 Cf. Case of Alfonso Martín-del Campo-Dodd. Preliminary Objections, supra note 4, paras. 79 to 84.

43 Cf. Eur. Court H.R., Kudla v. Poland, Grand Chamber, (30210/96), Judgment of October 26, 2000, paras. 102-103 and 119-123; Eur. Court H.R., Humen v. Poland, Grand Chamber, (26614/95), Judgment of October 15, 1999, paras. 58-59. See also, Eur. Court H.R., Ilaşcu v. Moldova and Russia, (48787/99), Judgment of July 8, 2004, paras. 395-400.

44 Affidavit of expert witness Mr. Desmund Allum, sworn on October 26, 2004 (Exhibits to the Case File).

45 Prince Pinder v. The Queen, Privy Council Appeal No. 40/2001 (Bahamas), September 23, 2002, [2003] 1 AC 620, para. 5.

46 Cf. Case of Lori Berenson-Mejía, supra note 10, para. 230; Case of Carpio-Nicolle et al., supra note 10, para. 85; and Case of De la Cruz-Flores, supra note 16, para. 138.

47 Cf. Case of Carpio-Nicolle et al., supra note 10, para. 86; Case of Plan de Sánchez Massacre. Reparations, supra note 10, para. 52; and Case of De la Cruz-Flores, supra note 16, para. 139.

48 Cf. Case of Carpio-Nicolle et al., supra note 10, para. 87; Case of Plan de Sánchez Massacre. Reparations, supra note 10, para. 53; and Case of Tibi, supra note 16, para. 224.

49 Cf. Case of Lori Berenson-Mejía, supra note 10, para. 231; Case of Carpio-Nicolle et al., supra note 10, para. 87; and Case of De la Cruz Flores, supra note 16, para. 140.

50 Cf. Case of Carpio Nicolle et al., supra note 10, para. 89; Case of Tibi, supra note 16, para. 225; and Case of the “Juvenile Reeducation Institute”, supra note 37, para. 261.

51 Cf. Case of Plan de Sánchez Massacre. Reparations, supra note 10, para. 80; Case of De la Cruz- Flores, supra note 16, para. 155; and Case of Tibi, supra note 16, para. 242.

52 Cf. Case of Lori Berenson-Mejía, supra note 10, para. 235; Case of Carpio-Nicolle et al., supra note 10, para. 177; and Case of Plan de Sánchez Massacre. Reparations, supra note 10, para. 81.

53 Cf. Case of De la Cruz-Flores, supra note 16, para. 164; Case of Plan de Sánchez Massacre. Reparations, supra note 10, para. 52; and Case of the “Juvenile Reeducation Institute”, supra note 37, para. 310.

54 Cf. Case of Lori Berenson-Mejía, supra note 10, para. 238; Case of Plan de Sánchez Massacre. Reparations, supra note 10, paras. 106 and 107; and Case of De la Cruz Flores, supra note 16, para. 168.

55 Cf. Hilaire, Constantine, Benjamin et al. Case, supra note 7, para. 152.c).

56 Cf. Hilaire, Constantine, Benjamin et al. Case, supra note 7, para. 217.

57. Cf. Maarten Bos, "Theory and Practice of Treaty Interpretation", 27 Netherlands International Law Review (1980) pp. 3-38 and 135-170; W. Lang, "Les règles d'interprétation codifiées par la Convention de Vienne sur le Droit des Traités et les divers types de traités", 24 Österreichische Zeitschrift für öffentliches Recht (1973) pp. 113-173; C.H. Schreuer, "The Interpretation of Treaties by International Courts", 45 British Year Book of International Law (1971) pp. 255-301; Ch. de Visscher, Problèmes d'interprétation judiciaire en Droit international public, Paris, Pédone, 1963, pp. 9-264.

58. M.K. Yasseen, "L'interprétation des traités d'après la Convention de Vienne sur le Droit des Traités", 151 Recueil des Cours de l'Académie de Droit International de La Haye (1976) p. 74; J.B. Acosta Estévez and A. Espaliat Larson, La Interpretación en el Derecho Internacional Público y Derecho Comunitario Europeo, Barcelona, PPU, 1990, p. 105, and cf. pp. 105-107.

59. A.A. Cançado Trindade, "The Interpretation of the International Law of Human Rights by the Two Regional Human Rights Courts, in Contemporary International Law Issues: Conflicts and Convergence (Proceedings of the III Joint Conference ASIL/Asser Instituut, The Hague, July 1995), The Hague, Asser Instituut, 1996, pp. 157-162 and 166-167.

60. A.A. Cançado Trindade, "Le développement du Droit international des droits de l'homme à travers l'activité et la jurisprudence des Cours Européenne et Interaméricaine des Droits de l'Homme" (Discours du Président de la Cour Interaméricaine des Droits de l'Homme), in CourEDH, Cour Européenne des Droits de l'Homme - Rapport annuel 2003, Strasbourg, CourEDH, 2004, pp. 41-50.

61. IACtHR, Blake versus Guatemala case (Reparations), Judgment of 22.01.1999, Series C, n. 48, Separate Opinion of Judge A.A. Cançado Trindade, pp. 52-53, par. 33, and cf. pars. 32-34.

62. E.g., cases Tyrer versus United Kingdom (1978), Airey versus Ireland (1979), Marckx versus Belgium (1979), Dudgeon versus United Kingdom (1981), among others.

63. Cf., in this sense, the obiter dicta in: Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR), Advisory Opinion OC-10/89, on the Interpretation of the American Declaration on the Rights and Duties of Man in the Framework of Article 64 of the American Convention on Human Rights, of 14.07.1989, pars. 37-38; IACtHR, Advisory Opinion OC-16/99, on the Right to Information on Consular Assistance in the Framework of theGuarantees of the Due Process of Law, of 01.10.1999, pars. 114-115, and Concurring Opinion of Judge A.A. Cançado Trindade, pars. 9-11; IACtHR, case of the "Street Children" (Villagrán Morales and Others versus Guatemala), Judgment (on the merits) of 19.11.1999, pars. 193-194; IACtHR, case Cantoral Benavides versus Peru, Judgment (on the merits) of 18.08.2000, pars. 99 and 102-103; IACtHR, case Bámaca Velásquez versus Guatemala, Judgment (on the merits) of 25.11.2000, Individual Opinion of Judge A.A. Cançado Trindade, pars. 34-38; IACtHR, case of the Community Mayagna (Sumo) Awas Tingni versus Nicaragua, Judgment (on the merits and reparations) of 31.08.2001, pars. 148-149; IACtHR, case Bámaca Velásquez versus Guatemala, Judgment (on reparations) of 22.02.2002, Individual Opinion of Judge A.A. Cançado Trindade, par. 3.

64. For example, in its judgments in the Wemhoff (1968), Belgian Linguistics (1968), Golder (1975), Ireland versus United Kingdom (1978) and Soering (1989) cases, among others.

65. ECtHR, Loizidou versus Turkey case (preliminary objections, Judgment of 23.03.1995, par. 75.

66. IACtHR, Advisory Opinions n. 1, on "Other Treaties" Subject to the Advisory Jurisdiction of the Court (1982), and n. 3, on Restrictions to the Death Penalty (1983), among others.

67. E.g., inter alia, IACtHR, Advisory Opinion n. 2, on Effect of Reservations on the Entry into Force of the American Convention (1982).

68. Cf., e.g., IACtHR, Advisory Opinion n. 4, on the Proposed Amendments to the Naturalization Provisions of the Constitution of Costa Rica (1984).

69. Thus, in its judgment in the Golder case (1975), the European Court of Human Rights clearly stated that

70. Cf. A.A. Cançado Trindade, "Co-existence and Co-ordination of Mechanisms of International Protection of Human Rights (At Global and Regional Levels)", 202 Recueil des Cours de l'Académie de Droit International de La Haye (1987) p. 401.

71. Cf., e.g., IACtHR, Advisory Opinion n. 11, on Exceptions to the Exhaustion of Domestic Remedies [cf.] (1990).

72. Cf. A.A. Cançado Trindade, The Application of the Rule of Exhaustion of Local Remedies in International Law, Cambridge, University Press, 1983, pp. 1-443.

73. Namely, severe physical or mental suffering, intentionally inflicted, to obtain information or a confession, with the consent or acquiescence of authorities or other persons acting in an official capacity.

74. Cf. A.A. Cançado Trindade, "Les Mesures provisoires de protection dans la jurisprudence de la Cour Interaméricaine des Droits de l'Homme", 4 Revista do Instituto Brasileiro de Direitos Humanos (2003) pp. 13- 25; A.A. Cançado Trindade, "The Evolution of Provisional Measures of Protection under the Case-Law of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (1987-2002)", 24 Human Rights Law Journal - Strasbourg/Kehl (2003) n. 5-8, pp. 162-168.

75. In which, - it may be recalled, - the Hague Court endorsed the so-called Pan-American practice relating to reservations to treaties, given its flexibility, and in search of a certain balance between the integrity of the text of the treaty and the universality of participation in it; hence the criterion of the compatibility of the
reservations with the object and purpose of the treaties. Cf. ICJ Reports (1951) pp. 15-30; and cf., a contrario sensu, the Joint Dissenting Opinion of Judges Guerrero, McNair, Read and Hsu Mo (pp. 31-48), as well as the Dissenting Opinion of Judge Álvarez (pp. 49-55), for the difficulties generated by this criterion.

76. That is, the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties of 1969, and the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or between International Organizations of 1986, - to which one may add, in the same sense, the Vienna Convention on Succession of States in the Matter of Treaties of 1978 (Article 20).

77. Endorsed, e.g., by the American Convention on Human Rights (cross-reference of Article 75).

78. As neither the aforementioned Vienna Conventions, nor - prior to them - the cited Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice on Reservations to the Convention against Genocide, define what constitutes the compatibility or otherwise (of a reservation) with the object and purpose of a treaty, the etermination is left to the interpretation of this latter, without it having been defined either on whom falls that determination, in what way and when it should be made. At the time of the adoption of that Advisory Opinion (1951), neither the majority of the Hague Court, nor the dissenting Judges on the occasion, foresaw the development of the international supervision of human rights by the conventional organs of protection; hence the insufficiencies of the solution then advanced, and endorsed years later by the two Vienna Conventions on the Law of Treaties referred to.

79. There is a distinction between a reservation stricto sensu and a restriction in the instrument of acceptance of the jurisdiction of an international supervisory organ, even though their legal effects are similar.

80. The Advisory Opinion of the ICJ on the Reservations to the Convention against Genocide (1951) marked the gradual passage, in the matter of reservations to treaties, from the rule of unanimity (of its approval by the States Parties), to the test of its compatibility with the object and purpose of the treaty. In a general way, the Vienna Convention incorporated the flexible Pan-American doctrine on reservations, in accordance with a tendency to this effect of the international practice already formed in the epoch; I.M. Sinclair, "Vienna Conference on the Law of Treaties", 19 International and Comparative Law Quarterly (1970) pp. 47-69; and cf. Articles 19-20 of the Vienna Convention.

81. Cf., e.g., J.M. Ruda, "Reservations to Treaties", 146 Recueil des Cours de l'Académie de Droit International de La Haye (1975) pp. 95-218; D.W. Bowett, "Reservations to Non-Restricted Multilateral Treaties", 48 British Year Book of International Law (1976-1977) pp. 67-92; P.-H. Imbert, Les réserves aux traités multilatéraux, Paris, Pédone, 1979, pp. 9-464; K. Holloway, Les réserves dans les traités internationaux, Paris, LGDJ, 1958, pp. 1-358; K. Zemanek, "Some Unresolved Questions Concerning Reservations in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties", Essays in International Law in Honour of Judge Manfred Lachs (ed. J. Makarczyk), The Hague, Nijhoff, 1984, pp. 323-336; Ch. Tomuschat, "Admissibility and Legal Effects of Reservations to Multilateral Treaties", 27 Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht (1967) pp. 463-482; F. Horn, Reservations and Interpretative Declarations to Multilateral Treaties, Uppsala, Swedish Institute of International Law, 1988, pp. 184-222.

82. Cf. U.N., Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of Its 50th Session (1998), General Assembly Official Records - Supplement n. 10(A/53/10), pp. 195-214 ("Reservations to Treaties: Guide to Practice").

83. Compiled by the Secretary-General of the United Nations and collected in the document: U.N., CCPR/C/2/Rev.4, of 24.08.1994, pp. 1-139 (English version), and pp. 1-160 (Spanish version).

84. For a study of the problems created by the reservations to these four human rights treaties of the United Nations, cf. L. Lijnzaad, Reservations to U.N. Human Rights Treaties - Ratify and Ruin?, Dordrecht, Nijhoff, 1995, pp. 131-424.

85. Cf. D. Shelton, "State Practice on Reservations to Human Rights Treaties", 1 Canadian Human Rights Yearbook/Annuaire canadien des droits de la personne (1983) pp. 205-234; C. Redgwell, "Universality or Integrity? Some Reflections on Reservations to General Multilateral Treaties", 64 British Year Book of International Law (1993) pp. 245-282; L. Lijnzaad, op. cit. supra n. (28), pp. 3-424; M. Coccia, "Reservations to Multilateral Treaties on Human Rights", 15 California Western International Law Journal (1985) pp. 1-49; L. Sucharipa-Behrmann, "The Legal Effects of Reservations to Multilateral Treaties", 1 Austrian Review of International and European Law (1996) pp. 67-88.

86. Cf. B. Clark, "The Vienna Convention Reservations Regime and the Convention on Discrimination against Women", 85 American Journal of International Law (1991) pp. 281-321; W.A. Schabas, "Reservations to the Convention on the Rights of the Child", 18 Human Rights Quarterly (1996) pp. 472-491; A. Sanchez Legido,"Algunas Consideraciones sobre la Validez de las Reservas al Convenio Europeo de Derechos Humanos", 20 Revista Jurídica de Castilla-La Mancha (1994) pp. 207-230; C. Pilloud, "Reservations to the Geneva Conventions of 1949", International Review of the Red Cross (March/April 1976) pp. 3-44.

87. Followed by the Weber case (1990).

88. In its third Advisory Opinion on Restrictions to the Death Penalty (1983) the Court warned that the question of reciprocity as related to reservations did not fully apply vis-à-vis human rights treaties (paragraphs 62-63 and 65). Earlier, in its second Advisory Opinion on the Effect of Reservations on the Entry into Force of the American Convention (1982), the Court dismissed the postponement of the entry into force of the American Convention by application of Article 20(4) of the 1969 Vienna Convention (paragraph 34).

89. To Article 1 of the [first] Optional Protocol to the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.

90. Pertaining to pension benefits of more than 700 retired Senegalese members of the French army.

91. As the effects of the French legislation on the matter lasted until then.

92. Communication n. 196/1985, decision of 03.04.1989 (and previous decision of admissibility of 05.11.1987).

93. Paragraphs 17 and 20; text in: U.N./Human Rights Committee, document CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.6, of 02.11.1994, pp. 6-7.

94. Prior to Protocol n. 11, in the Loizidou case, supra.

95. Cf., e.g., references in ns. (29) and (30), supra.

96. Cf., in this line of reasoning, the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action (1993), the main document adopted by the II World Conference on Human Rights, part II, paragraph 5, and cf. part I, paragraph 26.

97. Cf. note (28), supra.

98. Possibility that came to be considered at the Vienna Conference which adopted the Convention of 1969.

99. System of the two-thirds of the States Parties, set forth in Article 20(2) of that Convention.

100. Such as drawn up in 1998 by the International Law Commission of the United Nations; cf. note (24), supra.

101. Cf. A. Pellet (special rapporteur of the U.N. International Law Commission), Second Report on the Law and Practice Relating to Reservations to Treaties (1997), paragraphs 164, 204, 206, 209, 227, 229 and 252.

102. U.N., Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of Its 49th Session (1997), General Assembly Official Records - Supplement n. 10(A/52/10), p. 94, par. 47.

103. Ibid., p. 112, par. 107. In this respect, it was warned that States often and consciously formulate reservations incompatible with the object and purpose of human rights treaties for knowing that they will not be challenged, and that the lack of sanctions for such reservations thus leads States to become Parties to such
treaties without truly committing themselves; ibid., pp. 117-118, pars. 129-130.

104. Ibid., pp. 106-107, 119 and 121-122, pars. 82, 84, 134, 138 and 143, respectively.

105. Text in ibid., pp. 126-127.

106. Cf. U.N./ILC, Report of the International Law Commission (55th Session, May-June and July-August 2003), G.A.O.R. - Suppl. n. 10 (doc. A/58/10), of 2003, p. 184.

107. Ibid., p. 184.

108. Ibid., p. 207.

109. Ibid., p. 208, and cf. pp. 216, 244 and 251 (on the "limitation" of the scope of previous reservations, conducive to their withdrawal).

110. A.A. Cançado Trindade, Tratado de Direito Internacional dos Direitos Humanos, vol. II, Porto Alegre/Brazil, S.A. Fabris Ed., 1999, pp. 152-170.

111. Cf. A.A. Cançado Trindade, "The International Law of Human Rights at the Dawn of the XXIst Century", 3 Cursos Euromediterráneos Bancaja de Derecho Internacional - Castellón/Spain (1999) pp. 145-221.

112. For the conception of human rights as an "autonomous juridical imperative", cf. D. Evrigenis,"Institutionnalisation des droits de l'homme et droit universel", in Internationales Colloquium über Menschenrechte (Berlin, Oktober 1966), Berlin, Deutsche Gesellschaft für die Vereinten Nationen, 1966, p. 32.

113. A.A. Cançado Trindade, "La Humanización del Derecho Internacional y los Límites de la Razón de Estado", 40 Revista da Faculdade de Direito da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais - Belo Horizonte/Brazil (2001) pp. 11-23.

114. As suggested in the aforementioned "Preliminary Conclusions" of 1997 (paragraph 7) of the International Law Commission; cf. U.N., Report of the International Law Commission... (1997), op. cit. supra n. (46), pp. 126-127.

115. International Court of Justice, Advisory Opinion of 28.05.1951, ICJ Reports (1951) p. 23; and, for a study on the matter, cf. A.A. Cançado Trindade, "La jurisprudence de la Cour Internationale de Justice sur les droits intangibles / The Case-Law of the International Court of Justice on Non-Derogable Rights", Droits intangibles et états d'exception / Non-Derogable Rights and States of Emergency (ed. D. Prémont), Brussels, Bruylant.

116. A.A. Cançado Trindade, "The International Law of Human Rights at the Dawn of the XXIst Century", op. cit. supra n. (53), pp. 145-221.

117. Traditional considerations of reciprocity are also discarded when it comes to apply, e.g., the provisions of the 1949 Geneva Conventions on International Humanitarian Law, such as those of common Article 3, pertaining to conventional obligations of the State vis-à-vis persons under its jurisdiction; reciprocity here
yields of considerations of protection of a superior order.

118. B.V.A. Röling, International Law in an Expanded World, Amsterdam, Djambatan, 1960, pp. 37-38.

119. H.W. Briggs, "Unilateral Denunciation of Treaties: The Vienna Convention and the International Court of Justice", 68 American Journal of International Law (1974) p. 68.

120. IACtHR, pars. 93 and 98-99 of the Court's Judgment in the Hilaire case; and pars. 84 and 89-90 of the Court's Judgments in the Benjamin et allii and the Constantine et allii cases.

121. A.A. Cançado Trindade, A Proteção Internacional dos Direitos Humanos - Fundamentos Jurídicos e Instrumentos Básicos, São Paulo/Brazil, Ed. Saraiva, 1991, pp. 11-12.

122. G.E. do Nascimento e Silva, Conferência de Viena sobre o Direito dos Tratados, Rio de Janeiro, MRE/Imprensa Nacional, 1971, p. 81.

123. P. Reuter, Introduction au droit des traités, 2nd. ed., Paris, PUF, 1985, p. 120.

124. Cf. A.A. Cançado Trindade, "Co-existence and Co-ordination of Mechanisms...", op. cit. supra n. (14), pp. 91-112, esp. pp. 101-103.

125. In respect of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties; cf. E. Schwelb, "The Law of Treaties and Human Rights", in Toward World Order and Human Dignity - Essays in Honor of M.S. McDougal (eds. W.M. Reisman and B.H. Weston), N.Y./London, Free Press, 1976, p. 265.

126. Sixth preambular paragraph in fine, texts reproduced respectively in: U.N., United Nations Conference on the Law of Treaties - Official Records, Documents of the Conference (Vienna, 1968-1969), vol. III, N.Y., U.N., 1971, p. 289; and in: U.N., United Nations Conference on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or between International Organizations - Official Records, Documents of the Conference (Vienna, 1986), vol. II, N.Y., U.N., 1995, p. 95.

127. R. Bernhardt, "Thoughts on the Interpretation of Human Rights Treaties", in Protecting Human Rights: The European Dimension -Studies in Honour of G.J. Wiarda (eds. F. Matscher and H. Petzold), Köln, C. Heymanns, 1988, pp. 66-67 and 70-71. And cf. Erik Suy, "Droit des traités et droits de l'homme", (eds. R. Bernhardt et alii), Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 1983, pp. 935-947; E. Schwelb, "The Law of Treaties and Human Rights", op. cit. supra n. (69), pp. 262-283; G.E. do Nascimento e Silva, Conferência de Viena... , op. cit. supra n. (66), pp.80-81; E. de la Guardia and M. Delpech, El Derecho de los Tratados y la Convención de Viena, Buenos Aires, La Ley, 1970, pp. 458 and 454; F. Capotorti, "Il Diritto dei Trattati Secondo la Convenzione di Vienna", in Convenzione di Vienna sul Diritto dei Trattati, Padova, Cedam, 1984, p. 61.

128. F. Matscher, "Methods of Interpretation of the Convention", in The European System for the Protection of Human Rights (eds. R.St.J. MacDonald, F. Matscher and H. Petzold), Dordrecht, Nijhoff, 1993, pp. 66 and 73.

129. For a general study of non-appearance, cf. J.B. Elkind, Non-Appearance before the International Court of Justice..., op. cit. infra n. (80), pp. 1-206; H.W.A. Thirlway, Non-Appearance before the International Court of Justice, Cambridge, University Press, 1985, pp. 1-184.

130. On the practice on this particular point, mainly of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, cf. D. Rodríguez Pinzón, "Presumption of Veracity, Non-Appearance, and Default in the Individual Complaint Procedure of the Inter-American System on Human Rights", 25 Revista del Instituto Interamericano de
Derechos Humanos (1998) pp. 125-148.

131. Cf., e.g., P.M. Eisemann, "Les effets de la non-comparution devant la Cour Internationale de Justice", 19 Annuaire français de Droit international (1973) pp. 351-375.

132. Ch. de Visscher, Aspects récents du droit procédural de la Cour Internationale de Justice, Paris, Pédone, 1966, pp. 204-205.

133. Of whom I keep a good memory, in the meetings we had in Rio de Janeiro while he was a member of the Inter-American Juridical Committee (IAJC), particularly of a panel we both participated in, together with Daniel Bardonnet, in one of the annual Courses of International Law organized by the IAJC, precisely on peaceful settlement of international disputes; the transcripts of that memorable panel were unfortunately never published.

134. K. Highet, "Evidence, the Court and the Nicaragua Case", 81 American Journal of International Law (1987) p. 56.

135. G.L. Scott and C.L. Carr, "The ICJ and Compulsory Jurisdiction: the Case for Closing the Clause", 81 American Journal of International Law (1987) p. 66. For my own criticisms of that defiance, cf. A.A. Cançado Trindade, "Nicarágua versus Estados Unidos (1984-1985): Os Limites da Jurisdição `Obrigatória' da Corte Internacional de Justiça e as Perspectivas da Solução Judicial de Controvérsias Internacionais", 37-38 Boletim da Sociedade Brasileira de Direito Internacional (1983-1986) pp. 71-96.

136. Cf. Aristóteles, Ética Nicomaquea - Política, Mexico, Edit. Porrúa, 2000; book I, section XIII, p. 15; book VIII, section XI, p. 112; book X, section IX, pp. 144-146.

137. Cf. Tomás de Aquino, Tratado de la Ley - Tratado de la Justicia - Gobierno de los Príncipes, Mexico, Edit. Porrúa, 2000, pp. 35, 50 and 76-77.

138. J.B. Elkind, Non-Appearance before the International Court of Justice - Functional and Comparative Analysis, Dordrecht, Nijhoff/Kluwer, 1984, pp. 169 and 206.

139. S.A. Alexandrov, "Non-Appearance before the International Court of Justice", 33 Columbia Journal of Transnational Law (1995) n. 41, pp. 41-44, 60, 63 and 68.

140. As illustrated by the regrettable and much-criticized "withdrawal" of the United States in the Nicaragua case, which it eventually lost in the merits (in 1986) as well; cf. ibid., pp. 67 and 71-72.

141. I.D.I., 4th. Commission, rapporteur G. Arangio Ruiz.

142. Institut de Droit International, Resolution on Non-Appearance before the International Court of Justice, of 31.08.1991, preamble, 6th. considerandum.

143. Ibid., 5th. considerandum.

144. Paragraphs 73-74 and 93-94 of the present Judgment.

145. Paragraph 101, and cf. resolutory points ns. 2 and 4 of Advisory Opinion n. 18.

146. Paragraphs 98-99 of Advisory Opinion n. 18.

147. Cf. A.A. Cançado Trindade, Tratado de Direito Internacional..., op. cit. supra n. (97), vol. II, pp. 415-416.

148. For the extension of jus cogens to all possible juridical acts, cf., e.g., E. Suy, «The Concept of Jus Cogens in Public International Law», in Papers and Proceedings of the Conference on International Law (Langonissi, Greece, 03-08.04.1966), Geneva, C.E.I.P., 1967, pp. 17-77.

149. In its Judgment of 11 July 1996, in the case concerning the Application of the Convention against Genocide, the International Court of Justice affirmed that the rights and obligations set forth in that Convention were "rights and duties erga omnes"; ICJ Reports (1996) p. 616, par. 31.

150. Inter-American Court of Human Rights, case Blake versus Guatemala (Merits), Judgment of 24.01.1998, Separate Opinion of Judge A.A. Cançado Trindade, par. 25, and cf. pars. 23-24.

151. Paragraphs 66, 68, 71 and 73, respectively, of my Concurring Opinion.

152. Its formulation in the two Vienna Conventions on the Law of Treaties (1969 and 1986), Articles 53 and 64.

153. E.g., its recognition in the Articles on the Responsibility of States, adopted by the U.N. International Law Commission in 2001.

154. Paragraph 29, and cf. also pars. 32-33 of my Separate Opinion.

155. Likewise, the Ad Hoc International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, on its turn, held, in the A. Furundzija case (Judgment of 10.12.1998), that the absolute prohibition of torture has the character of a norm of jus cogens (pars. 137-139, 144 and 160).

156 Corte I.D.H., Caso Hilaire. Excepciones Preliminares. Sentencia de 1 de septiembre de 2001. Serie C No. 80; Corte I.D.H., Caso Benjamin y otros. Excepciones Preliminares. Sentencia de 1 de septiembre de 2001. Serie C No. 81; y Corte I.D.H., Caso Constantine y otros. Excepciones Preliminares. Sentencia de 1 de septiembre de 2001. Serie C No. 82.

157 Corte I.D.H., Caso Hilaire, Constantine, Benjamin y otros. Sentencia de 21 de junio de 2002. Serie C No. 94.

158 Corte I.D.H. Informe Anual de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, 2003, OEA/Ser.L/V/III.62 Doc. 1, pág. 45.

159 Corte I.D.H. Informe Anual de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, 1999, OEA/Ser.L/V/III.47 Doc. 6, pág. 41.

160 Después de la fecha de elaboración del Informe correspondiente al año 1998, con fecha 5 de febrero de 1999, el Estado de Trinidad y Tobago envió una comunicación a la Corte mediante la cual solicitó al Tribunal confirmar que las medidas adoptadas en favor del señor Anthony Briggs, habían sido levantadas debido a que la Comisión Interamericana emitió el informe No. 64/98 el 3 de noviembre de 1998. Al respecto, el Estado manifestó que había presentado dicho Informe al Comité Consultivo en Materia de Indultos, el cual “estudiará en su próxima sesión la recomendación de la Comisión en lo referente a la indemnización y consideración de la liberación o conmutación de la pena en el caso de Anthony Briggs”.

161 Corte I.D.H. Informe Anual de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, 1998, OEA/Ser.L/V/III.43 Doc. 11, págs. 35, 36 y 37.

162 O.E.A. Carta de la Organización de los Estados Americanos, suscrita en Bogotá en 1948 y reformada por el Protocolo de Buenos Aires en 1967, por el Protocolo de Cartagena de Indias en 1985, por el Protocolo de Washington en 1992, y por el Protocolo de Managua en 1993.

163 Tercera Cumbre de las Américas, Declaración de la Ciudad de Quebec, 20-22 de abril de 2001.

164 O.E.A. AG/RES. 1925 (XXXIII-O/03) “Fortalecimiento de los Sistemas de Derechos Humanos en Seguimiento del Plan de Acción de la Tercera Cumbre de las Américas”, Resolución aprobada en la cuarta session plenaria, celebrada el 10 de junio de 2003.

165 O.E.A. AG/Res.1330 (XXV-0/95) “Observaciones y Recomendaciones al Informe Anual de la Corte de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos”, Resolución aprobada en la novena sesión plenaria, celebrada el 9 de junio de 1995.

166 O.E.A. Anuario Interamericano de Derechos Humanos, 1968, pág. 268.

167 O.E.A. Anuario Interamericano de Derechos Humanos, 1968, pág. 295.

168 O.E.A. Anuario Interamericano de Derechos Humanos, 1968, pág. 315.

169 O.E.A. Anuario Interamericano de Derechos Humanos, 1968, pág. 92.

170 OEA/Ser.G/V/C-d-1631, en: O.E.A. Anuario Interamericano de Derechos Humanos, 1968, pág. 156; y OEA/Ser.G/IV/C-i-871 rev. 3., en: O.E.A. Anuario Interamericano de Derechos Humanos, 1968, pág. 157.

171 O.E.A. Anuario Interamericano de Derechos Humanos, 1968, pág. 150.

172 O.E.A “Actas y Documentos. Conferencia Especializada Interamericana sobre Derechos Humanos”, San José, Costa Rica 7-22 de noviembre de 1969, OEA/Ser.K/XVI/1.2.

173 O.E.A “Actas y Documentos. Conferencia Especializada Interamericana sobre Derechos Humanos”, San José, Costa Rica 7-22 de noviembre de 1969, OEA/Ser.K/XVI/1.2, pág. 377.

174 O.E.A “Actas y Documentos. Conferencia Especializada Interamericana sobre Derechos Humanos”, San José, Costa Rica 7-22 de noviembre de 1969, OEA/Ser.K/XVI/1.2, págs. 392 y 393.

175 O.E.A “Actas y Documentos. Conferencia Especializada Interamericana sobre Derechos Humanos”, San José, Costa Rica 7-22 de noviembre de 1969, OEA/Ser.K/XVI/1.2, pág. 457.

176 O.E.A “Actas y Documentos. Conferencia Especializada Interamericana sobre Derechos Humanos”, San José, Costa Rica 7-22 de noviembre de 1969, OEA/Ser.K/XVI/1.2, pág. 480.

177 O.E.A “Actas y Documentos. Conferencia Especializada Interamericana sobre Derechos Humanos”, San José, Costa Rica 7-22 de noviembre de 1969, OEA/Ser.K/XVI/1.2, pág. 498.

178 Corte I.D.H.: El Sistema Interamericano de Protección de los Derechos Humanos en el Umbral del Siglo XXI. Informe: Bases para un Proyecto de Protocolo a la Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos para Fortalecer su Mecanismo de Protección (2001), Tomo II, 2ª Edición, Mayo de 2003, pág. 378.

179 El artículo 30 del Estatuto de la Corte Interamericana debe, a fortiori, ser enmendado, de modo a compatibilizarlo con la nueva redacción, aquí propuesta, del artículo 65 de la Convención Americana.

180 Corte I.D.H.: El Sistema Interamericano de Protección de los Derechos Humanos en el Umbral del Siglo XXI. Informe: Bases para un Proyecto de Protocolo a la Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos para Fortalecer su Mecanismo de Protección (2001), Tomo II, 2ª Edición, Mayo de 2003, pág. 369.

181 Corte I.D.H.: El Sistema Interamericano de Protección de los Derechos Humanos en el Umbral del Siglo XXI. Informe: Bases para un Proyecto de Protocolo a la Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos para Fortalecer su Mecanismo de Protección (2001), Tomo II, 2ª Edición, Mayo de 2003, pág. 664.

182 Corte I.D.H.: El Sistema Interamericano de Protección de los Derechos Humanos en el Umbral del Siglo XXI. Informe: Bases para un Proyecto de Protocolo a la Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos para Fortalecer su Mecanismo de Protección (2001), Tomo II, 2ª Edición, Mayo de 2003, pág. 795.

183 Corte I.D.H.: El Sistema Interamericano de Protección de los Derechos Humanos en el Umbral del Siglo XXI. Informe: Bases para un Proyecto de Protocolo a la Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos para Fortalecer su Mecanismo de Protección (2001), Tomo II, 2ª Edición, Mayo de 2003, págs. 919 y 920.

184 Corte I.D.H., Caso Baena Ricardo y otros. Competencia. Sentencia de 28 de noviembre de 2003. Serie C No. 104, párr. 53.

185 Corte I.D.H., Caso Baena Ricardo y otros. Competencia. Sentencia de 28 de noviembre de 2003. Serie C No. 104, párr. 54.a.

186 Corte I.D.H., Caso Baena Ricardo y otros. Competencia. Sentencia de 28 de noviembre de 2003. Serie C No. 104, párr. 54.b.

187 Corte I.D.H., Caso Baena Ricardo y otros. Competencia. Sentencia de 28 de noviembre de 2003. Serie C No. 104, párr. 139.

188 Proyecto de Convención Interamericana sobre Protección de Derechos Humanos preparado por la Comisión Interamericana de Derechos Humanos y aprobado con carácter de “documento de trabajo” para la Conferencia Especializada Interamericana sobre Derechos Humanos, mediante Resolución del Consejo de la Organización de los Estados Americanos en la sesión celebrada el 2 de octubre de 1968. Cfr. OEA/Ser. K/XVI/1.2, Conferencia Especializada Interamericana sobre Derechos Humanos, Actas y Documentos, OEA Doc. 5, 22 de septiembre de 1969, págs. 12-35.

189 En la primera sesión plenaria de la Conferencia Especializada Interamericana sobre Derechos Humanos, celebrada el 8 de noviembre de 1969, se resolvió crear la Comisión II.

190 En la Conferencia Especializada Interamericana sobre Derechos Humanos, celebrada en San José, Costa Rica del 7 al 22 de noviembre de 1969, se adoptó la Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos.

191 OEA/Ser. K/XVI/1.1, Doc. 71, 21 de noviembre de 1969, pág. 5.

192 OEA/Ser. K/XVI/1.1, Doc. 71, 21 de noviembre de 1969, pág. 8.

193 Corte I.D.H., Caso Baena Ricardo y otros. Competencia. Sentencia de 28 de noviembre de 2003. Serie C No. 104, párrs. 89 y 90.

194 Corte I.D.H., Caso Baena Ricardo y otros. Competencia. Sentencia de 28 de noviembre de 2003. Serie C No. 104, párr. 88.

195 Del total de casos contenciosos que la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos ha tenido bajo su jurisdicción, el 13,33% se encuentran archivados, el 30,66% se encuentran en trámite ante el Tribunal y el 56% se encuentran en etapa de supervisión de cumplimiento de sentencia.

196 Del total de medidas provisionales que han sido sometidas a la jurisdicción de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, el 31,57% se encuentran archivadas, el 7% no fueron adoptadas y el 61,4% se encuentran activas.

197 Cfr. Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos. Informe Anual de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, 1990, OEA/Ser.L/V/III.23 doc.12, págs. 15 y 16; Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos. Informe Anual de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, 1991, OEA/Ser.L/V/III.25 doc.7, pág. 9; Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos. Informe Anual de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, 1994, OEA/Ser.L/V/III.31 doc.9, págs. 18 y 19; Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos. Informe Anual de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, 1996, EA/Ser.L/V/III.35 doc.4, pág. 27; Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos. Informe Anual de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, 1997, OEA/Ser.L/V/III.39
doc.5, págs. 29 y 30; Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos. Informe Anual de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, 1998, EA/Ser.L/V/III.43 Doc.11, págs. 32-35; Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos. Informe Anual de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, 1999, EA/Ser.L/V/III.47 Doc.6, págs. 37-45; Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos. Informe Anual de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, 2000, OEA/Ser.L/V/III.50 Doc.4, págs. 39-44; Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos. Informe Anual de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, 2001, OEA/Ser.L/V/III.54 Doc.4, págs. 46-55; Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos. Informe Anual de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, 2002, OEA/Ser.L/V/III.57
Doc.5, págs. 21, 25, 26, 32, 35, 45 y 46; Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos. Informe Anual de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, 2003, OEA/Ser.L/V/III.61 Doc.1, págs. 44-46; y Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos. Informe Anual de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, 2004, OEA/Ser.L/V/III.65 Doc.1, págs. 24 y 25.

198 Cfr. GARCÍA RAMÍREZ, SERGIO: La Jurisdicción Internacional. Derechos Humanos y la Justicia Penal, Editorial Porrúa, México, 2003, págs. 126-130 y 557; y SAAVEDRA ALESSANDRI, PABLO: La Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos. Las Reparaciones Ordenadas y el Acatamiento de los Estados; en: “Los Instrumentos de Protección Regional e Internacional de los Derechos Humanos”, Memorias del Seminario, Programa de Cooperación sobre Derechos Humanos, México-Comisión Europea, Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores, págs. 185-220.

199 Corte I.D.H., El Hábeas Corpus Bajo Suspensión de Garantías (arts. 27.2, 25.1 y 7.6 Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos). Opinión Consultiva OC-8/87 del 30 de enero de 1987. Serie A No. 8, párr. 26; Corte I.D.H., Garantías Judiciales en Estados de Emergencia (arts. 27.2, 25 y 8 Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos). Opinión Consultiva OC-9/87 del 6 de octubre de 1987. Serie A No. 9. párr. 35; y Corte I.D.H., Ciertas
Atribuciones de la Comisión Interamericana de Derechos Humanos (arts. 41, 42, 44, 46, 47, 50 y 51 Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos). Opinión Consultiva OC-13/93 del 16 de julio de 1993. Serie A No. 13, párr. 31.

 



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